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The current case study investigated the use of a picture prompt and teacher proximity with an adult learner with significant disabilities during a postsecondary classroom management class and generalization setting. Results indicated that the learner had a higher percentage of intervals of on-task behavior during intervention than baseline. Teacher and learner satisfaction ratings suggested that the intervention was an acceptable strategy. A discussion of study limitations, implications, and future research directions are included. • A simple low tech instructional strategy can improve student on-task behavior. • Teachers can use an antecedent strategy to improve student behavior. • Strategies used in K-12 environments may work in higher education settings. • Successful applied behavior analysis strategies help include students in group participation.

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In synchronous-reinforcement schedules, the duration of behavior directly controls the duration of reinforcement on a moment-to-moment basis. We replicated and extended Diaz de Villegas et al. (2020) by comparing the effects of synchronous reinforcement with two accumulated-reinforcement schedules for increasing on-task behavior for seven preschoolers. One accumulated schedule was the same as the one used in Diaz de Villegas et al. and did not include tokens, whereas the other accumulated schedule included the delivery of tokens within session. Furthermore, we assessed preference for the three reinforcement schedules. The results showed that synchronous reinforcement was effective for increasing on-task behavior for all seven participants. Furthermore, it was most effective for increasing on-task behavior for three out of seven participants and preferred by all participants. For some participants, other schedules were also similarly effective. The results are discussed with respect to implications for application.

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BACKGROUND: Physically active learning (PAL) is a potentially valuable method to stimulate academic performance and physical activity (PA) in children with learning disorders (LD) attending special-needs schools. It is yet unknown whether PAL can be successfully implemented in special-needs schools. AIMS: This study aimed to evaluate a PAL-program in special-needs schools by examining teacher's dose delivered, children's dose received, and associations of children's characteristics with dose received. METHODS: Children (N = 37) from two special-needs schools participated in a six-week PAL-program. Dose delivered was evaluated based on PAL-lessons' implementation rate and duration. Dose received was assessed through time-on-task observations (n = 23) and PA (n = 37). To assess the association between dose received and children's characteristics (sex, behavioral disorders, motor skills, and physical fitness), Mann-Whitney U tests and Spearman's rho correlations were used. RESULTS: For teacher's dose delivered, the implementation rate exceeded 95%, and the PAL-lessons lasted the intended 12 minutes. For dose received, children's on-task behavior was above 79%, and children spent 43% of the time in moderate-to-vigorous PA during PAL. Motor skills were positively related to on-task behavior related to the movements, and physical fitness was positively related to moderate-to-vigorous PA. CONCLUSIONS: PAL was successfully implemented in terms of dose delivered and dose received for children with LD attending special-needs schools.

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Conjoint behavioral consultation (CBC), as adjusted for 2e children with academic and behavioral difficulties, was the focus of this single-subject design study. Three young children from a preschool participated, together with their parents and teachers. Academic enablers for students-intervention, maintenance, and generalization phases; academic and behavioral competencies-intervention, maintenance, and generalization phases; and teachers', parents', and students' perceptions of the intervention's social validity data were collected among the outcome measures. Findings from multiple participant-related probes pointed to constructive improvements in the phases of intervention, maintenance for listening behavior, and improved on-task skill in intervention, maintenance, and generalization. Additionally, during the consultation, parents and teachers noted improvements in the outcomes of the target behavior such as rhythm keeping, picture-word matching, writing the pictured concept in Turkish, writing the pictured concept in English, short personal story writing, short personal story telling, and verbal math problem solving, and each stakeholder gave the intervention a grade for its social validity. Limitations, potential routes for future study, and implications for preschool CBC intervention are highlighted.

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Synchronous schedules of reinforcement are those in which the onset and offset of a reinforcer are synchronized with the onset and offset of a target behavior. The current study replicated and extended Diaz de Villegas et al. (2020) by comparing synchronous reinforcement to noncontingent stimulus delivery while evaluating on-task behavior of school-age children. A concurrent-chains preference assessment was then used to determine the preferred schedule. Results indicated that the synchronous schedule was more effective than the continuous, noncontingent delivery of the stimulus at increasing on-task behavior but that the children preferred noncontingent delivery. Additionally, the use of synchronous and noncontingent delivery did not alter the children's preference for the task.

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Disruptive behaviors such as elopement, calling-out, and aggression are often a major barrier to instruction in preschool classrooms. One widely used class-wide behavior management system is Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT). To date, we could only locate two studies on CW-FIT used in preschool settings which found a therapeutic change in on-task behavior as well rates of teacher praise, teacher reprimands, student socials skills, and student problem behaviors. The current study used a withdrawal design to also evaluate the effectiveness of Tier 1 CW-FIT on on-task student behavior and teacher praise and reprimand behavior in a preschool setting during both large and small group activities. Results suggested that the implementation of the Tier 1 components of CW-FIT increased on-task group behavior in both settings. Results for rates of teacher's praise and reprimand statements were variable.

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Purpose: Physical inactivity is linked with several chronic diseases and poor academic outcomes. This study aimed to examine the effect an under-the-desk band would have on middle school students' physical activity level, and academic engagement. Methods: Two local middle school classrooms (n = 42, M = 20, F = 22) participated in the study, which was conducted over 14 weeks. Physical activity was measured with accelerometry, and academic engagement was assessed using momentary time sampling. Enrolled participants were provided an accelerometer to wear upon entering the classroom. The baseline period lasted for 36 days. During the intervention period, which lasted for the next 30 days, an under-the-desk band was provided to students to freely fidget at their desks. After the study, 13 participants (M = 5, F = 8) in Class A were included in final physical activity analysis, and the 6 participants (M = 3, F = 3) in Class B were included in the academic engagement analysis. Results: Class A had significant increases in percentage of sedentary time (MD = -12.91%, ES = .88) in addition to significant decreases in the percentage of light (MD = 8.82%, ES = .67), moderate (MD = 3.08%, ES = .84), and vigorous (MD = -.04%, ES = .63) physical activity time during the intervention period compared to the baseline period. No significant or meaningful changes occurred in academic engagement with the use of the under-the-desk band. Conclusions: This study high- lights the importance of finding appropriate methods to increase physical activity for adolescents.

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Background: Physical inactivity is prevalent in childhood. Schools can be an ideal context to promote the regular practice of physical activity since children spend there a large part of the day. In this sense, an emerging and current trend is active breaks at school. This article presents a study protocol that seeks to assess the feasibility and effectiveness of an intervention with active breaks (ACTIVA-MENTE program) in a school context on physical activity, on-task classroom behavior, and the physical activity enjoyment in schoolchildren. Methods: The protocol includes children aged 10 to 11 years. Two groups will be randomized (intervention and control groups). The intervention group will use the active break program, ACTIVA-MENTE, which consists of the application of a 4-min, 30-s video with moderate to vigorous-intensity physical activity. These breaks will be taken 6 times a day in the classes for 6 weeks. The total physical activity will be measured with accelerometers (Actigraph wGT3X-BT), the on-task behavior through the Direct Behavior Rating Scale and the level of enjoyment through the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale. Discussion: Previous research reported that active breaks have positive results in physical activity levels. This study will be one of the few to design active breaks through videos without depending on the presence of a physical education teacher and it can also provide new findings on the effectiveness of an active break's structure (e.g., types of exercises and intensity) on the indicated outcomes. Expected results: It is expected that the ACTIVA-MENTE program can be a suitable program for school settings, potentially increasing physical activity levels, and the commitment to the task, as well as be a pleasant moment for the students. Clinical trial registration: Clinicaltrials.gov, identifier NCT05403996.

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Aim: Participation in classroom physical activity breaks may improve children's cognition, but few studies have involved adolescents. The primary aim of this study was to examine the effects of classroom-based resistance training with and without cognitive training on adolescents' cognitive function. Methods: Participants were 97 secondary school students (45.4% females, mean age 15.78 ± 0.44). Four-year 10 classes from one school were included in this four-arm cluster randomized controlled trial. Classes were randomly assigned to the following groups: sedentary control with no cognitive training, sedentary with cognitive training, resistance training without cognitive training, and resistance training with cognitive training. Sessions varied in levels of both cognitive demand and resistance training (i.e., high vs. low) and were administered three times per week for 4 weeks (12 sessions). Inhibition, cognitive flexibility, episodic memory, on-task behavior, and muscular fitness were assessed at baseline and post-test. Linear mixed models were used to examine changes within and between groups. Results: In comparison with the control group, episodic memory improved significantly in the resistance training without cognitive training group (-9.87 units, 95% CI: -17.71 to -2.03, p = 0.014, d = 0.72). There were no group-by-time effects for inhibition or cognitive flexibility. Classroom activity breaks both with and without cognitive demand improved participants' on-task behavior in comparison with the control and sedentary group. The resistance training programs did not lead to improvements in muscular fitness. Conclusion: Participation in body weight resistance training without cognitive training led to selective improvements in episodic memory. No training effects were found for inhibition or cognitive flexibility. A longer study period may be necessary to induce improvements in muscular fitness and associated changes in inhibition and cognitive flexibility. Clinical Trial Registration: https://www.anzctr.org.au/ACTRN12621001341819.aspx, Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry-ACTRN12621001341819.

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Prior research suggests that visual features of the classroom environment (e.g., charts and posters) are potential sources of distraction hindering children's ability to maintain attention to instructional activities and reducing learning gains in a laboratory classroom. However, prior research only examined short-term exposure to elements of classroom décor, and it remains unknown whether children habituate to the visual environment with repeated exposure. In study 1, we explored experimentally the possibility that children may habituate to the visual environment if the visual displays are static. We measured kindergarten children's patterns of attention allocation in a decorated classroom environment over a 2-week period and compared the percentage of time children spent off-task to a baseline condition in which the classroom environment was streamlined (i.e., charts, posters, and manipulatives were removed). The findings indicate that with more prolonged exposure to a static visual environment, partial habitation effects were observed: Attention to the environment declined at the end of the exposure period compared to the beginning of the study; however, the environment remained a significant source of off-task behavior even after 2 weeks of exposure. In study 2, we extend this work by conducting a longitudinal observation of six primary classrooms in which we measured children's patterns of attention allocation in real classrooms for 15 weeks to investigate whether increasing familiarity with the classroom décor would influence attention toward the visual environment. No evidence of habituation was observed in genuine classrooms in study 2. Potential implications for classroom design and future directions are discussed.

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This study used an alternating treatments embedded within a nonconcurrent multiple baseline across participants design to evaluate the effects of a stability ball chair on the on-task and in-seat behavior for three children with autism in a clinic setting. Results indicated increases for both in-seat and on-task behavior with the stability ball chair compared to a standard table chair, however, results varied across participants. On-task behavior had a greater increase across participants compared to in-seat behavior with the stability ball chair. Social validity results found that therapists had an overall positive view of stability ball chairs. This study provides clinicians with options for alternative seating to increase the on-task and in-seat behavior of children with autism. This study extends the use and evaluation of alternative seating, from typically studied settings and contexts, such as classrooms, to clinic settings with younger populations.

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Physical activity in children is associated with several cognitive benefits. Since children and adolescents spend an increasing amount of time engaged in sedentary behavior both at school and in their free time, movement breaks during class hours, in which students are physically active, may be beneficial for effective learning. The aim of this systematic research is to provide an overview of prospective studies investigating the influence of classroom-based physical activity (CB-PA) interventions on attention and on-task behavior in school-aged children and adolescents aged between 4 and 18 years. A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, Science Direct, PsycINFO, Ovid), according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement, was performed from July 2020 to March 2021. Study characteristics data were analyzed and a methodological quality assessment, using a modified Downs and Black checklist, of both randomized and non-randomized studies was conducted. Overall, the available evidence points to a beneficial effect of exercise on attention and on-task behavior in a classroom setting. However, methodological differences concerning participants and duration and type of physical activity should be considered when comparing the results. Further studies with more comparable methodology are needed to provide a better understanding of the effect of CB-PA on attention and on-task behavior.

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This work analyzes stability and change of T-patterns related with on-task persistence and social interaction of preschool-age children. Stability and change are considered as natural setting indicators of time allocation processes and social dynamics with teachers and peers, within the fields of educational neuroscience and developmental science. In contrast with descriptive observations, developmental scales or ratings, T-pattern analysis clarifies and allows predictions on otherwise hidden behavioral patterns and their stability and change processes in natural settings. Here, T-pattern analyses were applied on observational behavior profiles of three preschool children, their teacher and their interacting peers in classroom and playground natural settings, to identify the structure and dynamics of daily activities in a multiple case study strategy about persistence and social interaction processes, considering teachers' and peers influence on children's behavior. Behavioral data were obtained with the Observational System of Social Interaction in a nomothetic, following and multidimensional observational design. Main results include the identification and description of patterns, their stability and change over time, and their subsumed structure regarding setting, child, and diachronic information. Two main behavioral patterns identified were: (1) teacher's attempts at redirecting child behavior to on-task were followed by on-task and off-task alternation loops, and (2) peers or teacher not responding to child social emissions, predict the kid going off-task. This constitutes a methodological contribution to Educational Neuroscience's efforts to describe real-world group contexts and predict the use of time in preschool contexts by children, their subsumed behavioral patterns and the influence of peers and teachers.

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Middle school students receiving special education services for specific learning disabilities and other health impairments often struggle to remain on task and meet independent work demands. Although a variety of strategies have been documented as effective in improving on-task behavior in students with disabilities, most are not contextually appropriate for public schools. Activity schedules may provide an efficient, minimally intrusive, and low-effort intervention for middle school classrooms. In this study, a concurrent multiple-baseline design across participants with an embedded reversal was used to examine the effects of activity schedules on the on-task and on-schedule behavior of four middle school students with disabilities in a resource classroom. Results demonstrate increased on-task and on-schedule behavior for all participants in math and language arts settings, and students and teachers indicated both that they enjoyed the activity schedule and that it improved on-task behavior and work completion. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

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A synchronous-reinforcement schedule is a type of schedule of covariation in which the onset and offset of the reinforcer covaries with the onset and offset of behavior. This study was a proof-of-concept demonstration of the efficacy of synchronous reinforcement for on-task behavior (completing a preacademic skill) and an evaluation of preschoolers' preference for this schedule in comparison to a more traditional schedule of reinforcement. Specifically, we compared the effects of a synchronous-reinforcement schedule to one in which continuous access to stimuli was delivered at the end of the session and yoked to the duration of on-task behavior that occurred during the session (accumulated reinforcement). Results showed the synchronous-reinforcement schedule was more effective for increasing on-task behavior and preferred by most participants.

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BACKGROUND: The current and declining physical activity levels of children is a global concern. Integrating physical activity into the school curriculum may be an effective way not only to improve children's physical activity levels but also enhance educational outcomes. Given the recent national focus in Australia on improving the literacy levels of children in primary school, and an increasing proportion of time spent on explicitly teaching these skills, integrating physical activity into English could be a viable strategy to improve literacy levels and physical activity at the same time. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of the 'Thinking While Moving in English' (TWM-E) program on children's physical activity, on-task behavior in the classroom, academic achievement, and executive function. METHODS: Grade 3-4 children from 10 public schools in New South Wales, Australia will be randomly allocated to intervention (n = 5) or control (n = 5) groups. All teachers will receive 1-day workshop of registered professional learning and a TWM-E equipment pack (e.g., chalk, lettered bean bags). Intervention schools will be asked to adapt their English lessons to embed movement-based learning in their daily program for three 40-min lessons per week, over a six-week period. The primary outcome is children's physical activity levels across the school day (measured using accelerometry). Secondary outcomes are children's on-task behavior during English lessons, academic achievement in English, and executive function. A detailed process evaluation will be undertaken including questionnaires, fidelity checks, and teacher and student interviews. DISCUSSION: The TWM-E program has the potential to improve primary school children's physical activity levels, along with academic outcomes (on-task behavior, cognition, and academic achievement), and provide stakeholders with exemplar lessons and guidelines which illustrate how to teach English to children whilst they are moving. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian and New Zealand Clinical trial Register ACTRN12618001009202 Date registered: 15/06/2018 retrospectively registered.

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PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the predictive relationship among physical activity, health-related fitness, and on-task classroom behavior in children using a discriminant function analysis. METHOD: Participants were a convenience sample of children (N = 533; Mage = 8.8 ± 1.9 years) recruited from 77 1st- through 5th-grade classrooms at 3 low-income schools in a capital city in the Southwest United States. Percent of the school day spent in sedentary behavior (%SED), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (%MVPA), and health-related fitness scores (body mass index [BMI] and Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run [PACER] laps) were assessed during school hours. Classrooms were observed for on-task behavior during the academic year with the use of 5-s momentary time sampling methodology. A discriminant function analysis was performed using a binary on-task behavior outcome, stratified by an 80% on-task behavior cut point. RESULTS: The results yielded 1 function (r2 = .26, F = 13.1) explaining approximately one quarter of the total variance. The standardized function coefficients were -.29, .29, -.48, and .48 for %SED, %MVPA, BMI, and PACER laps, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of the derived function for classifying a child into an on-task or off-task classroom were .79 and .73, respectively. Children who belonged to classrooms that achieved 80% on-task behavior displayed shorter times in sedentary behaviors (d = 1.01), lower BMI (d = 0.13), and higher PACER scores (d = 0.22) compared with children who belonged to off-task classrooms. CONCLUSION: School-day physical activity behaviors and health-related fitness scores can moderately discriminate children who belong to classrooms from low-income schools that are categorized as being sufficiently on task.

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Background: The physical, cognitive, and learning benefits of physical activity for children have already been established. However, many schools are failing to provide children with sufficient activity at school due to a crowded school curriculum. Physical activity interventions that integrate physical activity with learning is a way to enhance physical and cognitive benefits without loss of academic time. This study evaluated the preliminary efficacy and feasibility of "Thinking While Moving in English", a primary school program that integrates physical activity into English lessons. Method: Two classes of Grade 4 students (n = 55, 10⁻11 years old) were randomly assigned to the intervention (n = 29) or control (n = 26) conditions. The program components consisted of 3 × 40 min physically active academic lessons per week, delivered over a 4-week period. The following measures were taken at baseline and immediate post-intervention: on-task behavior, cognition (inhibition and working memory), and learning outcomes (spelling and grammar). Results: Results revealed significant improvements in on-task behavior and spelling in the intervention group, compared to the control group. There were no observed improvements in cognitive outcomes or grammar. Conclusions: This study provides preliminary evidence for the efficacy of physically active English lessons to enhance children's educational outcomes.

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BACKGROUND: Physically active lessons have not often been assessed with randomized controlled trials. AIMS: Evaluate the effects of the "Virtual Traveller" (VT) intervention delivered using classroom interactive whiteboards on physical activity, on-task behavior, and student engagement. METHODS: Participants were 219 children aged 8 to 9 years from 10 schools in Greater London, assessed in a cluster-randomized controlled trial between March 2015 and May 2016. For 6 weeks, intervention children received 10-minute VT sessions three times a week during math and English lessons (VT group: n = 113). Children in control schools received regular teaching (COM group: n = 106). Outcomes were school-day, weekend-day, and lesson-time sedentary behavior (SB), light physical activity (LPA) and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and on-task behavior and student engagement, assessed at baseline (T0), 2 weeks (T1), and 4 weeks (T2) during the VT intervention and 1 week (T3) and 3 months (T4) postintervention using multilevel modeling. RESULTS: VT pupils engaged in significantly more school-day MVPA at T1 only, with no other significant differences between groups in overall school-day or weekend-day activity. VT pupils engaged in significantly less SB and more MVPA during lesson time than COM pupils. More on-task behavior was shown in VT pupils than COM pupils but there was no difference in student engagement. DISCUSSION: VT reduced sedentary behavior and increased physical activity during lesson time but not across overall school or weekend days. VT improved on-task behavior but had no effect on student engagement. CONCLUSION: Physical activity can be integrated into teaching using interactive whiteboards with no detriment to educational outcomes.

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The Good Behavior Game (GBG), a well-researched classroom group contingency, is typically played for brief periods of time, which raises questions about the effects on subsequent contexts. This study used a multiple baseline design and showed that when the GBG was implemented in one context, behavior improved in only that context. Behavior improved in the subsequent activity only when the GBG was implemented.

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