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With postsecondary education opportunities for adult students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) on the rise, it is important to find socially validated research-based methods that are appropriate for the university or other community-based postsecondary instructional settings. The present research examines the effects of using flashcards with descriptive feedback and opportunities to respond, to teach one student with intellectual disabilities, enrolled in a postsecondary education-training program, commonly used industrial kitchen equipment. Results showed that discrete trail instruction, which included an error correction strategy of descriptive feedback plus opportunities to correctly respond was highly effective in mastery and maintenance of kitchen equipment identification, and generalization when asked to locate those items in the university kitchen lab.

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BACKGROUND: Dental education in India predominantly relies on traditional lecture-based learning (LBL), which may hinder student engagement and learning outcomes. To address these limitations, innovative learning methodologies, such as spaced repetition learning (SRL), are imperative. SRL prioritizes active recall and can enhance long-term knowledge retention. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of SRL delivered through a mobile flashcard application, in enhancing knowledge retention among dental undergraduates. METHODS: This single-blind randomized controlled trial (CTRI/2023/10/059347), conducted in Belagavi, India, involved 90 dental students who were equally distributed into control (LBL) and test (lecture followed by SRL demonstration) groups after randomization. Rigorous expert review ensured the quality of PowerPoint presentation and mobile flashcard contents. Knowledge assessments were conducted at baseline, first, and third months using a validated and reliable questionnaire. A perception survey on learning techniques was administered after the first month. Analysis methods included descriptive analysis, Pearson's chi-square test, independent t-test, and repeated measures ANOVA with Bonferroni's post hoc test. RESULTS: The pre- and post-intervention knowledge showed no significant differences, but the SRL group exhibited significantly higher retention at both first month (p ≤ 0.001) and third months (p ≤ 0.001) than the LBL group. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed significant pairwise differences in mean knowledge scores in SRL group. Students had significantly favorable perception toward SRL than LBL group. CONCLUSION: SRL delivered through mobile flashcards significantly enhances knowledge retention compared to LBL among dental students. Positive student perceptions support SRL's integration into dental curricula, with implications for improving knowledge retention among them.

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Selecting greener solvents during experiment design is imperative for greener chemistry. While many solvent selection guides are currently used in the pharmaceutical industry, these are often paper-based guides which can make it difficult to identify and compare specific solvents. This work presents a stand-alone version of the solvent flashcards that were developed as part of the AI4Green electronic laboratory notebook. The functionality is an intuitive and interactive interface for the visualisation of data from CHEM21, a pharmaceutical solvent selection guide that categorises solvents according to "greenness". This open-source software is written in Python, JavaScript, HTML and CSS and allows users to directly contrast and compare specific solvents by generating colour-coded flashcards. It can be installed locally using pip, or alternatively the source code is available on GitHub: https://github.com/AI4Green/solvent_flashcards . The documentation can also be found on GitHub or on the corresponding Python Package Index webpage: https://pypi.org/project/solvent-guide/ . SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTION: This simple and easy-to-use digital tool provides a visualisation of solvent greenness data through a novel intuitive interface and encourages green chemistry. It offers numerous advantages over traditional solvent selection guides, allowing users to directly customise the solvent list and generate side-by-side comparisons of only the most important solvents. The release as a standalone package will maximise the benefit of this software.

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RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: Digital flashcards are an increasingly popular study method for medical students today. The purpose of this study is to assess students' opinions on digital flashcards and to evaluate the need for radiology-focused digital flashcards. We created the first official Radiology-Pathology (Rad-Path) Correlation course digital flashcard deck sponsored by the Alliance of Medical Student Educators in Radiology (AMSER), and evaluated its effectiveness in increasing medical students' confidence levels of understanding Rad-Path concepts. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A 16-question survey was developed and publicly shared with medical students to assess the need for a high-quality radiology deck. In addition, students who trialed the AMSER Rad-Path Anki deck were assessed on their confidence of radiology pathology concepts prior to and after using these digital flashcards. RESULTS: 185 survey responses were received for the first survey about digital flashcard use. Overall, 87.6% of medical student respondents had used digital flashcards during medical school, and 33.5% had used digital flashcards to study radiology topics specifically. 67.6% of respondents stated they would use a digital flashcard deck if sponsored by an academic radiology society. Regarding the survey of the students who used the AMSER Rad-Path flashcards, 31 responses were received in the pre- and follow-up survey. Mean confidence in understanding the radiology pathology learning objectives increased when the Rad-Path Anki deck was utilized, and students rated the flashcards favorably. CONCLUSION: Students reported a high use of digital flashcards for studying topics in medical school. We identified a perceived need in students for a series of high-quality digital flashcards covering radiology topics. We created the first deck of AMSER Rad-Path flashcards which was well received by the medical students.

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Use of digital flashcards promotes active recall, spaced repetition, and self-assessment academic principles. This work explores the association and dose-dependent effect of this study method and locomotor (LP) and cardiovascular physiology (CP) grades. A single-faculty cohort study of medical LP and CP students was conducted, and 155 and 676 flashcards, respectively, were created through Moodle. An exploratory analysis examined three exam results (2019), and a confirmatory study used a fourth exam (2021) in another CP cohort. Of 685 students enrolled, 558 participated in the exploratory analysis: 319 (69%) for LP and 311 (84%) for CP, of which 203 LP and 267 CP students were flashcard users. Median grades were higher among flashcard users, and the number of cards reviewed was positively correlated with grades (r = 0.275 to 0.388 for LP and r = 0.239 to 0.432 for CP, P < 0.001). Multiple linear regression models confirmed a positive dose-dependent association between results and the number of flashcards studied: for every 100 LP cards reviewed, exam grades increased 0.44-0.75 on a 0-20 scale range (P < 0.001), and for every 1,000 CP flashcards, results raised 0.81-1.08 values (P < 0.05). These findings were confirmed in the 2021 CP cohort of 269 participants, of whom 67% were flashcard users. Digital flashcard revision has a consistent positive dose-dependent association on LP and CP grades.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Implementing flashcard-based strategies is a feasible way to promote active recall, spaced repetition, and self-assessment, and students are highly adherent to these initiatives. There is a positive dose-dependent association between the number of flashcards reviewed and physiology grades. These results are consistent across different physiology subjects, under different cohorts, over short and medium terms.

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Many medical students use spaced repetition as a study strategy to improve knowledge retention, and there has been growing interest from medical students in using flashcard software, such as Anki, to implement spaced repetition. Previous studies have provided insights into the relationship between medical students' use of spaced repetition and exam performance, but most of these studies have relied on self-reports. Novel insights about how medical students use spaced repetition can be gleaned from research that takes advantage of the ability of digital interfaces to log detailed data about how students use software. This study is unique in its use of data extracted from students' digital Anki data files, and those data are used to compare study patterns over the first year of medical school. Implementation of spaced repetition was compared between two groups of students who were retrospectively grouped based on average performance on three exams throughout the first year of medical school. Results indicate that students in the higher scoring group studied more total flashcards and implemented spaced repetition via Anki earlier in the year compared to the lower scoring group. These findings raise the possibility that implementing spaced repetition as a study strategy early in medical school may be related to improved knowledge retention and exam performance. Additional research should be performed at more sites to further examine the relationship between spaced repetition implementation and exam performance.

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Using large language models, we developed a method to efficiently query existing flashcard libraries and select those most relevant to an individual's medical school curricula.

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Introduction: Anki is an application that capitalizes upon the techniques of spaced repetition and is increasingly utilized by medical students for examination preparation. This study examines the impact of Anki usage in a medical school curriculum on academic performance. Secondary objectives analyzed individual Anki utilization and a qualitative assessment of Anki use. Methods: A cohort-control study was conducted at Boonshoft School of Medicine. One hundred thirty first-year medical students were enrolled in an Anki utilization training program from July 2021 to September 2021. Training included educational Anki courses and subsequent survey data collection over Anki usage. Data variables included all course final examinations, the Comprehensive Basic Science Exam (CBSE), individual Anki user statistics, nationally standardized exams scores, and Qualtrics surveys on student perceived ease of use. Results: Seventy-eight students reported using Anki for at least one of the exams, and 52 students did not use Anki for any exam. Anki users scored significantly higher across all four exams: Course I (6.4%; p < 0.001); Course II (6.2%; p = 0.002); Course III (7.0%; p = 0.002); and CBSE (12.9%; p = 0.003). Students who reported higher dependency on Anki for studying performed significantly better on the Course I, II, and CBSE exams. Conclusion: Anki usage may be associated with an increase in standardized examination scores. This supports Anki as an evidence-based spaced repetition and active retrieval learning modality for medical school standardized examinations. There was little correlation between its specific statistical markers and examination performance. This is pertinent to physicians and medical students alike as the learning and preservation of biomedical knowledge is required for examinations and effective clinical care.

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Physicians of the future will be expected to synthesize new knowledge and appropriately apply it in patient care. Here, we report on the effects of and student attitudes towards resource-enhanced exams by comparing student performance on closed-book exams with or without access to pharmacology flashcards. Setting: the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) School of Medicine (SOM), class of 2021 (N = 149), followed over 4 years. We provided pharmacology flashcards for studying purposes in all blocks; flashcards were only accessible during closed-book exams in 2 of 5 blocks. We collected pharmacology open-ended question (OEQ) scores and analyzed results using repeated measures ANOVA (SPSS). We collected MS4 survey data using Qualtrics and conducted a thematic content analysis. Performance on pharmacology questions on exams was not higher with access to pharmacology flashcards during exams. The number of students who passed pharmacology questions without flashcards on exams was as follows: 137 ± 3.7, 132 ± 5.0, and 134 ± 7.9 (average ± SEM). The number of students who passed pharmacology questions with flashcards on exams was as follows: 132 ± 6.6 and 120 ± 7.5. Survey comments revealed several themes. Access to pharmacology flashcards during exams allowed learners to focus on understanding the bigger picture and reduced stress. A subset of students reported having access to flashcards on pre-clerkship exams hurt their preparation for clerkships. Flashcards as exam resources were received well by approximately half the class, who reported benefits including more time to focus on understanding bigger picture concepts and reduced stress.

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With the global rise in international journals over the past decades, successful communication in science largely hinges upon developing competency in using English as the academic lingua franca. Accordingly, one aspect of developing academic literacy entails helping university students learn a group of medium-frequency and cross-disciplinary words (i.e., core academic vocabulary) employed extensively to describe abstract processes and organize rhetorical aspects of academic discourse. The current study aimed to investigate the contribution of mobile-assisted vocabulary learning with digital flashcards in scaffolding academic vocabulary learning and self-regulatory capacity development among university students. The participants were 54 Iranian university students selected based on their availability in the study context. The participants were assigned to an experimental group (N = 33) and a control learning condition (N = 21). Those in the experimental group used digital flashcards (i.e., Quizlet) to learn academic words in a recently developed core academic wordlist (i.e., NAWL), and the control group used traditional materials (wordlists) to learn the same vocabulary items. The participants' vocabulary knowledge and self-regulatory capacity for vocabulary learning were tested before and after the treatments. The findings indicated that although both groups improved their vocabulary knowledge and self-regulatory capacity after 4 months, the experimental group outperformed the control group in both measures, and the effect sizes of the observed differences were very large. Consequently, the study provided empirical evidence for the effectiveness of mobile-assisted vocabulary learning over traditional materials in developing academic literacy. The findings also indicated that using digital flashcards for vocabulary learning improves university students' capacity for undertaking self-regulated vocabulary learning. The implications of these findings for EAP programs are highlighted.

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Medical students use several supplementary digital resources to support learning. Majority of these supplementary resources enhance learning by recall and repetition. A few examples of these resources are concept maps, flashcards (FCs), and self-testing tools. Traditionally, paper-based FCs are used in higher education. The concept of paper-based FCs is extended to the digital world in the form of electronic/web-based FCs. The use of electronic/digital flashcards has been reported to review course material in the medical school curriculum. Some of the medical school coursework requires students to acquire visual skills, for example, histology and pathology. Students, who do not have prior knowledge of the basic content on histology and pathology struggle to identify microscopic tissues and organs. Therefore, students look for other supplementary resources to support visual learning. Digital resources like Anki, Quizlet, and Osmosis provide study tools that support visual skills. A review of the literature revealed only a few publications pertaining to the use of digital testing tools for histology education in medical school curriculum. In the medical histology course at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine (Einstein), Bronx, NY, first-year medical students used a game-based platform (Quizlet) to review image-based histology course content in the form of four Quizlet study sets. Students chose from six Quizlet study tools (Flashcards, Learn, Speller, Test, Match, and Race/Gravity) to review the image-based course material and test their knowledge on accurate identification of histological images. The data on student usage of study tools was tracked and analyzed for 4 years (Graduating Classes of 2018 to 2021) to calculate: the total usage of the game-based study tools (Flashcards, Learn, Speller, Test, Match, and Race/Gravity) over the period of 4 years, total percent usage over 4 years of each game-based study tools (Flashcards, Learn, Speller, Test, Match, and Race/Gravity) in each of the four Quizlet study sets and to identify the preferred game-based study tool. The data showed a consistent year-on-year increase in usage of game-based study tools by 50% (M = 445 in 2018 compared to M = 849 in 2021). For the four Quizlet study sets the percent usage of each study tool Flashcards, Learn, Test, Match, Gravity, and Speller was tracked and combined across the four academic years. It was found that Flashcards were used significantly more frequently than any other tool and this was followed by Learn, Test, Match, Gravity, and Speller (p < 0.0001 using chi-square). The study concludes that flashcards are the preferred study tool used by students to acquire visual skills for identifying histological images and could be incorporated when designing online study tools.

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Focus on forms (FonFs) is a pedagogical approach in Instructed Second Language Acquisition (ISLA) that emphasizes students' conscious and direct attention to learning target language features in isolation and outside their meaningful context. FonFs has been employed extensively in foreign language vocabulary instruction, and earlier studies reported positive results for such interventions. The present study investigated mobile-assisted FonFs in the context of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) to address the vocabulary learning needs of Iranian EFL students and examined developments in receptive and productive knowledge of academic words. In doing so, the participants in the experimental learning condition (N = 22) were exposed to academic vocabulary using digital flashcards on their mobile phones, and those in the control group (N = 15) used word lists. The participants' vocabulary knowledge was tested using different measures before and after the treatments, and the results were compared using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). The findings indicated that mobile-assisted FonFs was effective in receptive and productive vocabulary learning, and the experimental group outperformed the control group in the post-tests. The effect size of the observed differences was also large; however, differences in productive aspects of academic vocabulary knowledge were associated with smaller learning effects for mobile-assisted FonFs. The study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on mobile-assisted language learning and highlights some implications for teaching academic vocabulary via mobile-assisted FonFs.

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Researchers' interest in the learning of vocabulary from word cards has grown alongside the increasing number of studies published on this topic. While meta-analyses or systematic reviews have been previously performed, the types of word cards investigated, and the number of word card studies analyzed were limited. To address these issues, a research synthesis was conducted to provide an inclusive and comprehensive picture of how the use of word cards by learners results in vocabulary learning. A search of the Web of Science and Scopus databases resulted in 803 potential studies, of which 32 aligned with the inclusion criteria. Coding of these studies based on an extensive coding scheme found most studies assessed receptive vocabulary knowledge more often than productive vocabulary knowledge, and knowledge of vocabulary form and meaning were assessed more often than knowledge of vocabulary use. Results of effect size plots showed that more of the reviewed studies showed larger effects for the use of paper word cards than digital word cards, and for the use of ready-made word cards than self-constructed word cards. Results also indicated more studies showed larger effects for using word cards in an intentional learning condition compared with an incidental learning condition, and for using word cards in a massed learning condition compared with a spaced learning condition. Although a correlation was found between time spent using word cards and vocabulary learning outcomes, this correlation was not statistically significant. Learners that were more proficient in English learned more words from using word cards than those less proficient. These results suggest that future researchers should report learner proficiency, adopt reliable tests to assess vocabulary learning outcomes, compare the effectiveness of ready-made word cards and self-constructed word cards, and investigate the learning of different aspects of word knowledge. Teachers should provide learners guidance in how to use word cards and target word selection for self-construction of word cards. In addition, teachers should encourage learners to create word cards for incidentally encountered unknown words and use massed learning when initially working with these new words before using spaced learning for later retrieval practice.

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The present study investigated the impacts of mobile assisted vocabulary learning via digital flashcards (DFs). The data were collected from 44 adult English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners in three intact classes in a private language teaching institute in Iran, randomly assigned to experimental (N = 27) and control (N = 17) learning conditions. The experimental group used a freely available DF application (i.e., NGSL builder) to learn items from a recently developed corpus-based word list for high-frequency vocabulary in English (NGSL). The treatment was implemented as out-of-the-classroom learning activities where the EFL learners used DFs to augment their vocabulary knowledge, and their learning gains were compared to the control group that received regular English language education. The participants' vocabulary knowledge was tested in pre-, post-, and delayed post-tests, and the findings indicated that using DFs for outside the classroom vocabulary learning contributed significantly to short- and long-term improvements in the knowledge of high-frequency words. The study provided empirical evidence for the affordances of mobile assisted vocabulary learning for learning a considerable proportion of core vocabulary and has some implications for addressing the vocabulary learning needs of EFL learners.

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The current study explored the effects of using digital flashcards (DFs) and mobile devices on learning academic vocabulary. The participants were 86 university students majoring in Psychology in two experimental conditions and one control group. A list of 361 core academic words frequently used in Psychology was taught to the participants using different materials, and the learning outcomes were compared across the three groups. Accordingly, the participants in the experimental group 1 (N = 31) used a DF application (i.e., NAWL builder), participants in the experimental group 2 (N = 30) used traditional materials (i.e., paper flashcards), and those in the control group were given a list of target words with their definitions. Receptive knowledge of the target words was tested before and after the treatment, and the learning outcomes were compared across the groups using one-way between-groups ANOVA. The findings of the study indicated that using DFs enhanced students' engagement with learning their discipline-specific academic vocabulary and that experimental group 1 outperformed those participants in other learning conditions. The findings add to the existing literature on mobile-assisted vocabulary learning and provide empirical support for the effectiveness of such platforms for learning academic vocabulary. The implications of the study were discussed in terms of the affordances provided by DFs on mobile devices and corpus-based word lists for informing vocabulary learning components in teaching English for Academic Purposes (EAP).

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Introducción: Las técnicas de imaginería motora pueden utilizarse como complemento a la recuperación de las secuelas motoras tras un ictus, ya que durante la evocación de un movimiento se produce la activación de los circuitos neuronales implicados en la ejecución de éste. Pacientes y métodos: Se realizó un ensayo controlado aleatorizado simple ciego. Treinta y ocho pacientes en total fueron asignados aleatoriamente a cada grupo de estudio. Ambos grupos realizaron, durante cuatro semanas, cinco sesiones semanales de neurorrehabilitación y tres sesiones semanales de intervención experimental o control. El grupo experimental entrenaba el reconocimiento de la lateralidad, mientras que el grupo de control lo hacía con el reconocimiento de partes del cuerpo. Los participantes fueron evaluados antes y después de la intervención con parámetros posturográficos (área de barrido, longitud del recorrido de oscilación y porcentaje de diferencia de carga de peso entre los miembros inferiores), la escala de equilibrio de Berg (BBS), el índice de Barthel, el test Time Up and Go, la clasificación funcional de la deambulación (FAC) y la escala de calidad de vida para el ictus (ECVI-38). Resultados: Después de realizar el análisis intragrupo, se obtuvo significación estadística para el área de barrido (p < 0,001), la longitud del recorrido de oscilación (p = 0,04), el porcentaje de diferencia de carga de peso entre los miembros inferiores (p = 0,02), la BBS (p < 0,001), el índice de Barthel (p < 0,001), la FAC (p < 0,001) y la ECVI-38 (p < 0,001) en el grupo experimental; y para el porcentaje de diferencia de carga de peso entre los miembros inferiores (p = 0,01), la BBS (p = 0,001), el índice de Barthel (p = 0,001), el Time Up and Go (p = 0,04), la FAC (p = 0,03) y la ECVI-38 (p = 0,003) en el grupo de control. En el análisis intergrupo se obtuvo significación estadística para el área de...(AU)

Introduction: Motor Imagery techniques may be used as a complement to the recovery of motor sequelae after a stroke, as during the evocation of a movement the activation of neuronal circuits involved in the actual execution of the movement occurs. Patients and methods: A simple-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted. A total of 38 patients were randomly assigned to a study group. Both groups performed, for four weeks, five weekly sessions of neurorehabilitation and three weekly sessions of experimental or control intervention, respectively.The experimental group training the recognition of laterality, while the control group the recognition of body parts. Participants were evaluated pre and post intervention with posturography parameters –Sway area (AREA), Sway path length (LONG), difference in weigthload between lower limbs (DIFLOAD)–, the Berg Balance scale (BBS), the Barthel Index (BI), the Time Up and Go Test (TUG), the Functional Ambulation Categories (FAC), and the quality-of-life scale for stroke (ECVI-38). Results: After performing the intragroup analysis, statistical significance was obtained for AREA (p < 0.001), LONG (p = 0.04), DIFLOAD (p = 0.02), BBS (p < 0.001), BI (p < 0.001), FAC (p < 0.001), and ECVI-38 (p < 0.001) in the experimental group; and for DIFLOAD (p = 0.01), BBS (p = 0.001), BI (p = 0.001), TUG (p = 0.04), FAC (p = 0.03), and ECVI-38 (p = 0.003) in the control group. In the intergroup analysis, statistical significance was obtained for AREA (p = 0.03), BBS (p = 0.03), FAC (p = 0.02) and ECVI-38 (p = 0.002) at postintervention time. Conclusions: Combined use of physical rehabilitation and recognition of laterality through implicit motor imagery tasks, improves balance and functions related to postural control in subacute stroke patients.(AU)

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It is well known that undergraduate medical education demands learners to master large amounts of material. To help cope with learning, medical students have resorted to e-learning resources that include video lectures, visual mnemonics, and flashcard systems. The purpose of the current study was to determine the usage of Anki (Damien Elmes, https://apps.ankiweb.net/) among first-year medical students in an integrated first-year module consisting of anatomy and physiology. Additionally, this study aimed to elucidate how students used Anki in conjunction with their lectures. Sixty first-year medical students were recruited in a twelve-week longitudinal study consisting of three surveys (Weeks 1, 7, and 13) about usage of Anki and their perceptions of how to use it with formal lecture. About 70% of participants utilized Anki in the course and the usage increased significantly from Week 1 to Weeks 7 and 13. There was variation to how many days a week students used Anki. Survey data shows that students value formal lectures and prefer to supplement their studies with Anki. A large proportion of first-year medical students use Anki to supplement their studies. Faculty should consider ways to incorporate Anki into their teaching to facilitate student learning through active recall and spaced repetition.

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BACKGROUND: Pharmacology is a cornerstone of medical education as it underlies safe prescribing practices. However, medical students have reported unease regarding their perceived proficiency in medical pharmacology. Despite the significant impetus to improve student outcomes, there is little analysis available of the techniques used by medical students to learn, retain and apply medical pharmacology knowledge. METHODS: A mixed-methods, student-focused approach was conducted to design and evaluate specific resources developed to address gaps in pharmacology education. This methodology comprised an anonymised scoping survey, followed by semi-structured focus group interviews. We then developed a flashcard resource as an intervention to support long-term revision for academic and clinical success. This resource was released to a cohort of 100 graduate entry preclinical medical students who were invited at the end of year to evaluate the intervention via a subsequent anonymous survey. RESULTS: The scoping survey received 103 complete responses. Surveys and focus group interviews revealed that only 50% of students engage in ongoing revision. Amongst our cohort, we identified that the evidence-based technique of spaced-repetition was particularly well regarded. Hence, we developed and evaluated a bespoke resource utilising Anki™, an open-source, spaced-repetition flashcard program. A total of 1208 flashcards spanning 156 distinct classes of drugs with supplementary summary tables, diagrams and explanatory video and summary guides were created. Designed as a strategic revision tool to reinforce learning, evaluation showed students greatly appreciated the "comprehensive" and "well formatted" Anki™ resource that supported existing teaching modalities, with a global rating of 3.8 out of 5. CONCLUSIONS: Strategic and personalised resources for medical pharmacology education that assist with in-semester revision and long-term retention are highly valued amongst students for examination preparation and preparedness for practice. Collectively, these results reflect a novel approach to identifying and addressing weaknesses in existing learning resources in a manner that is inclusive of, and acceptable to, medical students.

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Over the past two decades, digital flashcards - that is, computer programmes, smartphone apps, and online services that mimic, and potentially improve upon, the capabilities of traditional paper flashcards - have grown in variety and popularity. Many digital flashcard platforms allow learners to make or use flashcards from a variety of sources and customise the way in which flashcards are used. Yet relatively little is known about why and how students actually use digital flashcards during self-regulated learning, and whether such uses are supported by research from the science of learning. To address these questions, we conducted a large survey of undergraduate students (n = 901) at a major U.S. university. The survey revealed insights into the popularity, acquisition, and usage of digital flashcards, beliefs about how digital flashcards are to be used during self-regulated learning, and differences in uses of paper versus digital flashcards, all of which have implications for the optimisation of student learning. Overall, our results suggest that college students commonly use digital flashcards in a manner that only partially reflects evidence-based learning principles, and as such, the pedagogical potential of digital flashcards remains to be fully realised.

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