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To enhance the bioavailability of bioactives with varying efficacy in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), a co-delivery system of solid-in-oil-in-water (S/O/W) emulsion was designed for the co-encapsulation of two bioactives in this paper. S/O/W emulsions were fabricated utilizing fucoxanthin (FUC)-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) as the solid phase, coconut oil containing curcumin (Cur) as the oil phase, and carboxymethyl starch (CMS)/propylene glycol alginate (PGA) complex as the aqueous phase. The high entrapment efficiency of Cur (82.3-91.3%) and FUC (96.0-96.1%) was found in the CMS/PGA complex-stabilized S/O/W emulsions. Encapsulation of Cur and FUC within S/O/W emulsions enhanced their UV and thermal stabilities. In addition, S/O/W emulsions prepared with CMS/PGA complexes displayed good stability. More importantly, the formed S/O/W emulsion possessed programmed sequential release characteristics, delivering Cur and FUC to the small intestine and colon, respectively. These results contributed to designing co-delivery systems for the programmed sequential release of two hydrophobic nutrients in the GIT.

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In this study, the layer-by-layer adsorption behavior of sodium caseinate, pectin, and chitosan on the oil-water interface was illustrated using multi-frequency ultrasound. We investigated the impact of ultrasound on various factors, such as particle size, zeta potential, and interfacial protein/polysaccharide concentration. It was observed that ultrasound has significantly decreased droplet size and increased the surface area at the interface, hence promoting the adsorption of protein/polysaccharide. In the sonicated multilayer emulsion, the concentrations of interface proteins, pectin, and chitosan increased to 84.82 %, 90.49 %, and 83.31 %, respectively. The findings of the study indicated that the application of ultrasonic treatment had a significant impact on the emulsion's surface charge and the prevention of droplet aggregation. As a result, the stability of the emulsion system, including its resistance to salt, temperature, and storage conditions, has been significantly improved. Moreover, the emulsion showed an increase in the retention rate of lutein by 21.88 % after a high-temperature water bath and by 19.35 % after UV irradiation. Certainly, the multilayer emulsion treated with ultrasound demonstrated a superior and prolonged releasing behavior. These findings demonstrated the suitability of the ultrasound treatment for the preparation of emulsions to deliver bioactive compounds.

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In order to improve the physicochemical stability of soy protein isolate (SPI) emulsion, lactoferrin (LF) was used to modify the interface layer. The stable multilayer emulsion can be formed when the content of lactoferrin is 0.5% at pH 5. The emulsion with good stability was at pH 3-7, and it was also stable to temperature change. The FFAs release of SPI emulsion and LF-SPI emulsion was 103.9% and 103.7%, respectively. The results showed that the lactoferrin layer did not hinder the digestion of oil and the bioaccessibility of carotenoids, but lactoferrin layer improved the physicochemical stability of SPI emulsions. This work provides information valuable in the design of emulsion formulations for applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and personal care industries.

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Present study was conducted to develop a stable chia oil emulsion using an ultrasound emulsification technique. Whey protein concentrate, gum Arabic, and xanthan gum stabilized layer by layer chia oil emulsion was developed using an electrostatic deposition. Single-layer and multilayer emulsion of chia oil was developed and their stability is compared. Developed emulsions were characterized by viscosity, stability, surface charge, and droplet size. Layer-by-layer emulsion showed the highest stability (98%) among all the formulations developed. Formulated single-layer and double-layer emulsions were spray dried and the respective powders were characterized for bulk density, tapped density, Hausner ratio, Carr's index, moisture content, color values, encapsulation efficiency, peroxide value, XRD, and SEM. Multilayer emulsion-based powder showed better flowability properties. The encapsulation efficiency of multilayer microparticles was found to be 93% with the lowest peroxide value of 1.08 mEq O2/kg fat. XRD diffractogram of the developed microparticles revealed amorphous nature. The developed ultrasound layer-by-layer emulsification technique is an efficient technique for developing chia oil-loaded microparticles.

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The purpose of this study was to further improve the physiochemical stability of the chitosan (CS) particle-stabilized Pickering emulsion by coating with sodium alginate (SA). The effect of different mass ratios of CS and SA (1:0.5-1:2) on the microstructure, rheology and the stability of the emulsions were comprehensively evaluated by various methods such as optical microscope, scanning electron microscope, rheometer, and low-field nuclear magnetism. The multilayer emulsion with low content of SA (CS:SA = 1:0.5) presented bridging flocculation. If SA concentration was high (CS:SA = 1:1-1:2), the surface of the Pickering emulsion droplets was completely covered by the SA. At this time, multilayer emulsion droplets became stable due to strong electrostatic and/or steric repulsion. Too high SA concentration (CS:GA = 1:2) might also promote the accumulation of moisture. In addition, the CS/SA multilayer emulsion showed higher coalescence stability under different environmental treatments but its creaming stability and flocculation stability were still sensitive to pH (2, 4 and 10), temperature (4 °C and 80 °C) and ionic strength (300-500 mM). In all, the addition of the proper level SA (CS:GA = 1:1-1:2) could increase the stability of CS particle-stabilized Pickering emulsion.

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The utilization of astaxanthin in food processing is considered to be narrow because of its substandard solubility in aqueous matrices and the instability of chemical compounds during the processing of food and the instability of chemical compounds during the processing of food. The investigation sought to evaluate multilayer emulsions stabilized by ionic interfacial layers of lupin protein isolate (LPI), ι-carrageenan (CA), and chitosan (CHI) on the physical stability of the emulsion as well as the retention of astaxanthin during the spray drying process. Primary emulsion (Pr-E) was prepared by adding LPI on oil droplet surfaces containing astaxanthin. The homogenization pressure and cycles to obtain the Pr-E were investigated. The secondary emulsion (Se-E) and tertiary emulsion (Te-E) were elaborated by mixing CA/Pr-E and CHI/Se-E, respectively. Emulsion stability was assessed under different environmental stresses (pH and NaCl). Astaxanthin retention of emulsions was determined immediately after finishing the spray-drying process. The results showed that Pr-E was stabilized with 1.0% (w/v) of LPI at 50 MPa and three cycles. Se-E and Te-E were obtained with CA/Pr-E and Se-E/CHI of 70/30 and 50/50% (w/w), respectively. The Se-E was the most stable compared to the Pr-E and Te-E when subjected to different pHs; nevertheless, once the NaCl concentration rose, no variations in the ζ-potential of all emulsions studied or destabilization were observed. The Se-E and Te-E derived provided higher astaxanthin retention (>95%) during the spray-drying process compared to Pr-E (around 88%). The results indicated that these astaxanthin multilayer emulsions show considerable potential as a functional ingredient in food products.

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Crustacean byproducts are valuable sources of astaxanthin. In this study, an astaxanthin-rich lipid phase was extracted from shrimp waste and encapsulated in multilayer emulsions. Stabilized by electrostatic complexes of whey protein isolate (WPI) and Persian gum (PG), the multilayer emulsions were created by different WPI:PG mixing ratios (1:2-1:4). The resultant emulsions were then exposed to lyophilization. The encapsulation efficiency of astaxanthin in lyophilized powders was 42.9-49.8 (g astaxanthin/100 g astaxanthin). The moisture content and water activity of the powders decreased significantly (p < 0.05), but their solubility and hygroscopicity increased significantly (p < 0.05) in response to an increase in the PG content of the mixture (or by reducing the WPI:PG ratio). Morphological characterizations revealed the formation of smaller and more uniform microcapsules when higher amounts of PG were used. Water dispersibility was higher than 94 (g powder/100 g powder). The results of an accelerated stability test showed an improvement in astaxanthin chemical stability in the multilayer emulsions, particularly when the WPI:PG ratio was 1:4. A model beverage consisting of water (89 g/100 g), sugar (10 g/100 g) and citric acid (1 g/100 g) was prepared and the potential application of astaxanthin microcapsules as a natural colorant was studied and compared with a synthetic colorant (E110) under the effect of light/darkness, temperature (4 and 25 °C) and time (0-60 d). The encapsulated lipid extract imparted a highly stable color to the product which was comparable to the effect of the synthetic colorant. However, the astaxanthin concentration was highly affected by time and partially affected by light and temperature.

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Physicochemical properties and storage stability of fish oil (FO) in water multilayer emulsions, stabilized with different mixtures of whey protein isolate (WPI) and water-soluble fraction of Farsi gum (WSFG), were studied under the effects of total biopolymer concentration (TBC), WSFG:WPI mixing ratio (MR) and pH for 1 month. pH reduction decreased the surface potential of dispersed droplets; however, an increase in the WSFG:WPI MR (at constant pH values corresponding to electrostatic interactions) significantly increased the absolute values of surface potential and hence the physical stability of emulsions. An increase in TBC increased droplet size and emulsion viscosity. The emulsion viscosity was also positively correlated with WSFG:WPI MR. During storage, higher values of TBC and WSFG:WPI MRs led to lower absorbance values. An increase in the WSFG:WPI MR and TBC significantly retarded the oxidation of emulsified FO.

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Nanoemulsions can be formed spontaneously from surfactant-oil-water systems using low energy methods. In this work, we showed that the droplets in oil-in-water nanoemulsions fabricated by spontaneous emulsification could be coated with an anionic biopolymer (beet pectin) using electrostatic deposition. Nanoemulsions were formed by titrating oil (medium chain triglycerides) and surfactant (polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate+lauric arginate) mixtures into an aqueous solution (10 mM citrate buffer, pH 4). Lauric arginate was used to generate a positive charge on the droplet surfaces, thereby enabling subsequent electrostatic deposition of anionic pectin. Extensive droplet aggregation occurred when intermediate pectin concentrations were used due to bridging flocculation. However, stable anionic pectin-coated lipid droplets could be formed at high pectin concentrations. These results demonstrate the possibility of tailoring the functionality of lipid nanodroplets produced by spontaneous emulsification.

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