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(analítico) Se presentan los resultados de una investigación de corte cualitativo que, a través de historias de vida, tuvo como propósito conocer las experiencias de mujeres jóvenes vinculadas a pandillas salvadoreñas. Las jóvenes participantes fueron seleccionadas de un proyecto sociocultural conocido como la Orquesta de Cuerdas del Centro para la Inserción Social. A partir de entrevistas a profundidad y un trabajo de relato autobiográfico, las jóvenes reconstruyeron sus historias permitiendo identificar cuatro resultados relevantes: los contextos de violencia en los cuales viven sus infancias, las motivaciones y significados de la pandilla para las jóvenes, la violencia y los roles de género que experimentan continuamente y el encuentro con el arte como una práctica de re-existencia que les permite resignificar su vida.

(analytical) This article describes the results of qualitative research focused on the life stories of a group of young women with the objective of learning about their experiences as members of Salvadoran gangs. The participants were selected from a sociocultural project known as the Center for Social Insertion String Orchestra. The young women created their life stories through in-depth interviews and autobiographical narrative work, which facilitated the identification of four relevant results: the contexts of violence that defined their childhood; the motivations and meanings of gang membership for young women; the violence and gender roles they experience; and their artistic practice as a re-existence that allows them to resignify their lives.

(analítico) Este artigo contém os resultados de uma pesquisa qualitativa através das histórias de vida desse grupo de mulheres jovens com o objetivo de conhecer suas experiências ligadas às gangues salvadorenhas. As jovens participantes foram selecionadas a partir de um projeto sociocultural conhecido como Centro de Inserção Social Orquestra de Cordas. A partir de entrevistas em profundidade e trabalho de narrativa autobiográfica, as jovens reconstruíram suas histórias, permitindo a identificação de quatro resultados relevantes: os contextos de violência em que vivem suas infâncias, as motivações e significados da gangue para as jovens, a violência e os papéis de gênero que vivenciam como um continuum e o encontro com a arte como prática de re-existência que lhes permite ressignificar suas vidas.

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Violence is a significant social problem in many cities throughout the world. In seeking to prevent or control violence, communities have put in place a variety of interventions. Many of these rely on the formal criminal justice process to arrest, prosecute, and imprison offenders. However, formal social control is well known to be an incomplete solution to violence. As a result, some communities have experimented with community-based solutions. One such approach is Cure Violence, an initiative that treats violence as a public health issue. Based on methods used to prevent the spread of infectious disease, Cure Violence seeks to stop the spread of violence within communities. This study presents qualitative results on the implementation of Cure Violence in Trinidad and Tobago, a two-island nation in the southeastern Caribbean near Venezuela. We conducted 36 in-depth semi-structured interviews and two focus groups with a variety of stakeholders, including program staff, residents, family members of victims, and police. Our findings suggest that the implementation of Cure Violence in Trinidad and Tobago led to educational and employment support for community members and a reduction in violence, particularly retaliation killings in the target communities. Our results are useful for understanding the factors that shape the implementation of community-based violence reduction initiatives like Cure Violence.

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Humanitarian and development agencies intervening in Latin American cities increasingly face the challenge posed by criminal armed groups (CAGs). Yet, there is a need for evidence-based comparative studies on how international agencies deal with them. Drawing on data collected in Colombia, El Salvador, Haiti, Honduras, and Mexico, this paper presents a novel typology of humanitarian organisations' access strategies that distinguishes between different levels of interaction with CAGs. The paper shows how humanitarian agencies assess a variety of risks and balance the potential consequences of their engagement with CAGs with the need to maintain constructive and trustful relationships with the state and the community with which they work. It finds that indirect dialogue or negotiation with CAGs via community leaders who act as intermediaries might provide a low-risk alternative to direct negotiation with CAG leaders, provided that 'do no harm' and humanitarian protection considerations vis-à-vis communities and intermediaries play a central role.

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This article evaluates the factors impacting support for tough on crime policies in El Salvador. Examining theoretical and empirical scholarly work, we look at how fear, together with social and political contexts drive public appetite for punitive policies towards criminals. We show that President Nayib Bukele is responding to public opinion and has implemented tough on crime policies at the expense of human rights violations and democratic institutions. Society favors candidates who are the "toughest" against criminal actors. Political candidates from all sides of the ideological spectrum tap into the fear of the populace to win votes, leading to punitive Darwinism. We provide an empirical assessment of which theoretically relevant factors are statistically associated with punitivism in the Salvadoran context, using multiple regression analysis of high-quality public opinion survey data from LAPOP.

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The study aimed to evaluate Teaching Recovery Techniques (TRT) delivered to Brazilian youth who experienced drug violence in one Favela. Thirty children, 8 to 14 years, were randomly assigned to TRT (n = 14) or to a treatment as usual group (n = 16) involving boxing/martial arts. Youth received five 90-min sessions over successive weeks. Standardized measures assessed Posttraumatic Stress and Depression at 2 weeks pre and post-test. An exploratory assessment of posttraumatic growth was also utilized. An interview with group leaders explored perceptions of delivering TRT within the favela. Medium effect sizes were found for PTSD and Depression, and a small effect size for posttraumatic growth. Group leaders emphasized understanding the favela context for program adaptation. In conclusion, TRT was found to be effective for children with PTSD and Depression who experienced drug violence in a Brazilian favela. TRT is recommended for future delivery. Larger scale RCTs are needed in Brazilian favelas.

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Abstract Cali is one of the cities in Colombia and Latin America with the highest rate of homicides, with around one third of homicides being attributed to street gang-related violence. In 2016, the Mayor's office from Santiago the Cali - Colombia, the Police Department and the Cisalva institute from Universidad del Valle worked together to develop an holistic intervention, "TIP -Youth without frontiers", to reduce street gang-related violence in Cali's communes. The intervention comprised six components focusing on developing personal/emotional skills, improving access to health and other public services, reducing substance use, connecting youth with employment and educational opportunities, promoting participation in sports and recreational activities, and improving the restitution of citizen rights to street gang members. This study aimed to describe the characteristics and implementation of this transformative street gang program and to describe changes in street gang-related homicides that could be associated with the implementation of this program. The program started contacting street gangs in January 2016, recruiting the first street gang members in August 2016. As of December 2018, 2.107 youth (from 84 Police identified street gangs) have participated in the program. A reduction in street gang-related homicides was observed in Cali's communes from 2015 to 2018. In intervened communes these homicides decreased on average by 80%, suggesting that the program could have contributed to the reduction of street gang-related violent behavior in these areas.

Resumen Cali es una de las ciudades de Colombia y de Latinoamérica con la tasa de homicidios más alta, con alrededor de un tercio de los homicidios atribuidos a la violencia entre pandillas. En 2016, la Alcaldía de Santiago de Cali - Colombia, la Policía Nacional y el Instituto Cisalva de la Universidad del Valle trabajaron juntos para desarrollar una intervención holística, "TIP - Jóvenes sin fronteras", con el fin de reducir la violencia relacionada con las pandillas en las comunas de Cali. La intervención abarcó seis componentes centrados en desarrollar habilidades personales/emocionales, mejorar el acceso a los servicios de salud y otros servicios públicos, reducir el consumo de sustancias, conectar a los jóvenes con oportunidades laborales y educativas, fomentar la participación en actividades deportivas y recreativas, y restituir los derechos cívicos a integrantes de las pandillas. El objetivo de este estudio era describir las características y la implementación de este programa de transformación de pandillas, y describir los cambios en la tasa de homicidios relacionados con pandillas que podrían estar asociados con la implementación de este programa. El programa comenzó contactando a las pandillas en enero del 2016, reclutando a los primeros miembros de estas en agosto del 2016. A diciembre del 2018, 2.107 jóvenes (de 84 pandillas identificadas por la policía) han participado en el programa. Se observó una reducción de los homicidios relacionados con pandillas en las comunas de Cali entre 2015 y 2018. En las comunas intervenidas, estos homicidios disminuyeron en promedio un 80%, lo que sugiere que el programa podría haber contribuido a la reducción del comportamiento violento relacionado con las pandillas en estas áreas.

Resumo Cali é uma das cidades da Colômbia e da América Latina com a maior taxa de homicídios, com cerca de um terço dos homicídios atribuídos à violência de gangues. Em 2016, a Prefeitura de Santiago de Cali - Colômbia, a Polícia Nacional e o Instituto Cisalva da Universidad del Valle trabalharam juntos para desenvolver uma intervenção holística, "TIP - Jovens sem fronteiras", a fim de reduzir a violência das gangues nas comunas de Cali. A intervenção abrangeu seis componentes focados no desenvolvimento de habilidades pessoais/emocionais, melhoria do acesso aos serviços de saúde e outros serviços públicos, redução do uso de substâncias, conexão dos jovens com oportunidades de emprego e educação, incentivo à participação em atividades esportivas e recreativas, e a restauração dos direitos cívicos para os membros das gangues. O objetivo deste estudo foi descrever as características e a implementação do programa de transformação de gangues e descrever as mudanças na taxa de homicídios por gangues que poderiam estar associadas à implementação deste programa. O programa começou contatando as gangues em janeiro de 2016 e foram recrutados os primeiros membros das gangues em agosto de 2016. Em dezembro de 2018, participaram do programa 2.107 jovens (de 84 gangues identificadas pela polícia). Uma redução dos homicídios relacionados a gangues nas comunas de Cali foi observada entre 2015 e 2018. Nas comunas intervencionadas, esses homicídios diminuíram em média 80%, sugerindo que o programa possa ter contribuído para a redução do comportamento violento relacionado a gangues nessas áreas.

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Resumen Este artículo de investigación es un ejercicio exploratorio que busca identificar las condiciones socioeconómicas y los contextos en los que se desarrollan actividades delictivas asociadas a las pandillas juveniles en Popayán, capital del departamento del Cauca. Para tal fin, se acude por un lado a estrategias cuantitativas a partir de información estadística de la Policía Nacional para describir los delitos de hurto y riñas. Además, se utilizan datos obtenidos del Sistema de Identificación de Beneficiarios (Sisben) para caracterizar las condiciones de vida de la población juvenil de la ciudad. Por otra parte, se acude a estrategias cualitativas en las que destaca el análisis documental mediante la revisión de prensa y de documentos institucionales, con el fin de conocer las acciones que se adelantan para la atención de las pandillas juveniles. Lo examinado permite advertir que las pandillas no son expresiones exclusivas de las grandes ciudades, en las ciudades intermedias están en el centro mismo de las acciones delincuenciales y son un importante desafío para la seguridad y la convivencia. Sin embargo, más allá de la intervención represiva, son pocas las iniciativas estatales para su atención, como poco el interés por comprender su complejidad. En consecuencia, las posibilidades efectivas de cambio de la situación son limitadas.

Abstract This research article is an exploratory exercise that seeks to identify the socioeconomic conditions and contexts in which criminal activities associated with youth gangs in Popayán, capital of the Department of Cauca, are performed. To that end, we resorted to, on one hand, quantitative strategies based on statistical information from the National Police to describe the crimes of theft and brawls. On the other hand, data obtained from the Beneficiary Identification System (Sisben) was used to characterize the living conditions of Colombia's juvenile population. Furthermore, qualitative strategies were used, in which documentary analysis stands out by means of press reviews and institutional documents, in order to know the actions being performed to attend to youth gangs. The analyzed information allowed cautioning that gangs are not exclusive expressions of large cities. Medium-sized cities are at the very center of crime and are a significant challenge to security and coexistence. However, beyond repressive intervention, there are few state initiatives related to this challenge and there is scant interest in understanding its complexity. Consequently, the situation's effective possibilities of change are limited.

Resumo Este artigo de pesquisa é um exercício exploratório que busca identificar as condições socioeconómicas e os contextos em que ocorrem atividades criminosas associadas a gangues juvenis em Popayán, capital do departamento de Cauca. Para este fim, por um lado, são utilizadas estratégias quantitativas com base em informações estatísticas da Polícia Nacional para descrever os delitos de furto e brigas. Além disso, para caracterizar as condições de vida da população jovem da cidade, são utilizados os dados obtidos do Sistema de Identificação de Beneficiários (Sisben). Por outro lado, são utilizadas estratégias qualitativas destacando a análise documental por meio da revisão de imprensa e de documentos institucionais, a fim de conhecer as ações que estão sendo realizadas para o atendimento das gangues juvenis. O resultado permite advertir que as gangues não são expressões exclusivas das grandes cidades, estão no centro das ações criminosas nas cidades médias e são um importante desafio para a segurança e a convivência. Porém, além da intervenção repressiva, são poucas as iniciativas estatais para sua atenção e é pouco o interesse por compreender a sua complexidade. Consequentemente, as possibilidades efetivas de mudança desta situação são limitadas.

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This article is an effort to better understand the discrimination mechanisms that ex-gang members perceive upon leaving the gang and seeking to reinsert themselves into a society marked by high levels of violence and inequality, as in Central America. Based on 24 in-depth interviews with former members of MS-13, the 18th Street gang, and other street gangs in El Salvador, this article analyzes the different mechanisms of discrimination perceived by respondents as a result of the stigma of past gang membership. This article also documents how these perceptions of discrimination can affect individuals who are searching for employment opportunities and seeking to reinsert themselves into society.

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Drawing on longitudinal ethnographic research that has been ongoing since 1996, this article explores the way that gangs socialize individuals into violent norms and practices in Nicaragua. It shows how different types of gang violence can be related to distinct socialization processes and mechanisms, tracing how these dynamically articulate individual agency, group dynamics and contextual circumstances, albeit in ways that change over time. As such, the article highlights how gang socialization is not only a variable multilayered process, but also a very volatile one, which suggests that the socialization of violence and its consequences are not necessarily enduring.

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La presente investigación intenta describir la dinámica grupal desenvuelta entre miembros del grupo artístico de hip hop "Colectribu", conformado por jóvenes en situación de riesgo social, expuestos a fenómenos como violencia, pandillas, y consumo de substancias que asisten al programa "Resistencia Juvenil" dependiente de la Fundación La Paz. Se describe un espacio de desenvolvimiento artístico permitiendo el crecimiento de habilidades artísticas mediante talleres de lírica, producción musical y otros. Se plantea a través de esto la reformulación de la pandilla dejando atrás la intención violenta y de transgresión a las normas para conducir el trabajo de "Colectribu" hacia la creación, contribución a la sociedad y fortalecimiento personal. "[Colectribu] es la unión de jóvenes provenientes de distintas partes de La Paz que se reúnen en base a los que es el hip hop, es una forma de expresar a las personas un mensaje nuevo, consciente y reflexivo". Se realiza un estudio de acción-participativa que además de ser plasmado en dicha investigación, se realiza un documental catalogando la realidad de los miembros del grupo que puede ser encontrado en https://youtu.be/fiX6eR1FV4A.

This research tries to describe the group dynamic that unravels between members of the hip hop artistic collective "Colectribu", consisting of young people in social risk, exposed to phenomena such as violence, gangs and substance abuse, they attend the "Resistencia Juvenil" program dependent from the La Paz Foundation. It describes a space of artistic development allowing growth of artistic abilities by means of lyricism workshops, musical production and others types of workshops. At the same time the concept of gang reformulates, leaving behind the violent intent to redirect the work from "Colectribu" to creation, social contribution and personal growth. "[Colectribu] is a union of youth who come from different places of La Paz who get together joined by hip hop, it's a way of expressing to people a new message, that is conscious and reflexive". An action-participative study was made, as well as a documentary who logs the reality of the members of the group that can be found at https://youtu.be/fiX6eR1FV4A.

Esta pesquisa procura descrever a dinâmica de grupo desenvolvida entre os membros do grupo de arte hip hop "Colectribu", formado por jovens em situação de risco social, expostos a fenômenos como violência, gangues e uso de substâncias que participam do programa "Resistência Jovem" dependente da Fundação La Paz. É descrito um espaço de desenvolvimento artístico que permite o crescimento de habilidades artísticas por meio de oficinas de letras, produção musical e outras. Com isso, propõe-se a reformulação da quadrilha, deixando para trás a violenta intenção e violação das normas de conduzir o trabalho de "Colectribu" à criação, contribuição à sociedade e fortalecimento pessoal. "[Colectribu] é a união de jovens de diferentes partes de La Paz que se reúnem com base no que é o hip hop, é uma maneira de expressar uma mensagem nova, consciente e atenciosa para as pessoas". É realizado um estudo de ação participativa que, além de refletido na referida pesquisa, é realizado um documentário catalogando a realidade dos membros do grupo que pode ser encontrada em https://youtu.be/fiX6eR1FV4A.

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A longitudinal study (15years) investigates heroin use patterns following precocious transition experiences for gang-affiliated Mexican-American males (n=119) in San Antonio, Texas. Five precocious transitions are examined: cohabitation, early nest leaving, school dropout, teenage parenthood, and unemployment (while not in school). Half of these men used heroin over the follow-up period for an average of under 4years. Findings from a zero-inflated Poisson model indicate that while these transitions do not have a significant effect on initiation of heroin use, they do have an important influence on individual's drug trajectories once they have initiated. Early-nest leaving and teenage parenthood are protective factors for continued heroin use while dropping out of high school and cohabiting during this same period are risk factors. Findings are discussed within the context of these disadvantaged and marginalized communities.

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Research has found that among juveniles weak ties to informal social control entities such as parents, school, and conventional peers increase the probability of the initiation and continuation of deviant behaviors such as drug use and crime. Given the weak ties of formal social control mechanisms in highly disadvantaged communities, informal social control mechanisms are often an important deterrent that reduce or moderate engagement in deviant behaviors among serious and persistent offenders. This analysis examines the association between long-term gang membership and adolescent informal social control processes, drug use, and delinquency. This research is based on data from a study of 160 Mexican American male gang members between the ages of 16 and 20. Findings suggest that among gang members in this context, commonly studied informal control mechanisms such as the family and schools do not function to deter long-term gang membership that is associated with serious criminal and violent behavior and drug use. The implications for future research on desistance or continuation of antisocial behavior across the life course are discussed.

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Esse texto pretende fazer uma leitura da relação entre os grupos e as novas formas da violência, especialmente da que se apresenta na gangue de jovens. Utilizaremos a leitura feita por antropólogos e sociólogos sobre esse fenômeno conhecido como “guerra entre gangues” para atualizar o texto freudiano “Psicologia das massas e analise do eu”. Nesse sentido, pretende-se demonstrar que o abalo do Nome-do-pai tem como efeito novas modalidades de grupos, que se constituem não mais a partir de uma lei que impõe renúncias e ideais, mas a partir de “ordens de ferro” que empuxam os jovens numa busca imediata do prazer que pode acabar por levá-los em direção à morte.

This article intends to perform an analysis of the relationship between groups and new forms of violence, especially the ones that present themselves in the form of youth gangs. We will use the interpretation given by anthropologists and sociologists to the phenomenon known as "gang warfare " in order to update the Freudian text " Group psychology and the analysis of the Ego ." In this sense, we intend to demonstrate that the shaking of the Name of the Father has produced new forms of groups that are no longer organized according to a law that demands renunciations and ideals, but by "iron commands" that pukk young people into a pursuit of immediate pleasure that can eventually lead them towards death.

Ce travail se propose de faire une lecture de la relation entre les groupes et les nouvelles formes de violence, en particulier celle qui se presente sous la forme de gang de jeunes. Nous utiliserons la lecture réalisée par les anthropologues et les sociologues sur ce phénomène connu comme de ®guerre des gangs ¼ pour mettre à jour le texte freudien ®Psychologie des foules et analyse du moi”. En ce sens , nous avons l'intention de démontrer que la secousse du nom du père resulte en de nouvelles formes de groupes qui ne sont plus structurés par une loi exigeant des dérogations et des idéaux , mais a partir de “la loi d’airan” qui entraine les jeunes gens dans une poursuite du plaisir immédiat qui pourra éventuellement les conduire a la mort.

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Esse texto pretende fazer uma leitura da relação entre os grupos e as novas formas da violência, especialmente da que se apresenta na gangue de jovens. Utilizaremos a leitura feita por antropólogos e sociólogos sobre esse fenômeno conhecido como “guerra entre gangues” para atualizar o texto freudiano “Psicologia das massas e analise do eu”. Nesse sentido, pretende-se demonstrar que o abalo do Nome-do-pai tem como efeito novas modalidades de grupos, que se constituem não mais a partir de uma lei que impõe renúncias e ideais, mas a partir de “ordens de ferro” que empuxam os jovens numa busca imediata do prazer que pode acabar por levá-los em direção à morte(AU)

This article intends to perform an analysis of the relationship between groups and new forms of violence, especially the ones that present themselves in the form of youth gangs. We will use the interpretation given by anthropologists and sociologists to the phenomenon known as "gang warfare " in order to update the Freudian text " Group psychology and the analysis of the Ego ." In this sense, we intend to demonstrate that the shaking of the Name of the Father has produced new forms of groups that are no longer organized according to a law that demands renunciations and ideals, but by "iron commands" that pukk young people into a pursuit of immediate pleasure that can eventually lead them towards death(AU)

Ce travail se propose de faire une lecture de la relation entre les groupes et les nouvelles formes de violence, en particulier celle qui se presente sous la forme de gang de jeunes. Nous utiliserons la lecture réalisée par les anthropologues et les sociologues sur ce phénomène connu comme de «guerre des gangs » pour mettre à jour le texte freudien «Psychologie des foules et analyse du moi”. En ce sens , nous avons l'intention de démontrer que la secousse du nom du père resulte en de nouvelles formes de groupes qui ne sont plus structurés par une loi exigeant des dérogations et des idéaux , mais a partir de “la loi d’airan” qui entraine les jeunes gens dans une poursuite du plaisir immédiat qui pourra éventuellement les conduire a la mort(AU)

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Empathy is considered a key construct in the empirical study of high-risk adolescent and young adult delinquency, crime, and violence. This study examined the psychometric properties and criterion-related validity of a Spanish adaptation of the Basic Empathy Scale (BES), which is an important measure designed to capture both affective and cognitive empathy that has been validated in multiple languages but not in Spanish. The study's sample consisted of 208 high-risk and gang-involved adolescents and young adults in the Greater San Salvador Metropolitan Area. The original BES was reduced from its 20-item design to a more culturally appropriate 7-item design. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis and criterion-related validity analysis indicate that the adapted BES is a valid and reliable multidimensional measure of empathy for high-risk Salvadoran adolescents and young adults. Consistent with previous findings, females reported lower levels of empathy than males and delinquent/violent respondents reported lower levels of empathy than their nonoffender counterparts.

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En una investigación reciente sobre violencia escolar en Bogotá, Colombia, el 56% de los estudiantes reportaron haber sido robados en el colegio durante el último año. El presente estudio cualitativo, de corte deductivo, pretendió profundizar en este fenómeno, buscando comprender las dinámicas de robos, así como los mecanismos de desentendimiento moral que podrían estar facilitando que los vinculados sientan menos culpa. El estudio fue realizado en un colegio público de nivel socioeconómico bajo y con altos niveles de criminalidad en su contexto comunitario. Inicialmente, 227 alumnos de sexto y octavo grados respondieron una encuesta de actitudes frente al robo. Con base en sus respuestas, 20 estudiantes con niveles altos de favorabilidad fueron entrevistados, y 40 que tenían niveles bajos o promedio de favorabilidad participaron en grupos focales. Los resultados indicaron que el robo en este colegio presenta un nivel elevado de organización, e involucra con frecuencia planeación, división de labores y amenazas. Además, según los participantes, el robo está muy relacionado con la presencia de pandillas en el colegio y con la falta de respuesta institucional clara y consistente. También se encontró que los involucrados recurren a varios mecanismos de desentendimiento moral, como las comparaciones ventajosas, el desplazamiento o la difusión de la responsabilidad, y la atribución de la culpa, como estrategias para justificar sus acciones. El estudio indica que es urgente implementar y evaluar intervenciones que busquen prevenir tanto el robo como la vinculación a trayectorias delictivas tempranas

In a recent research about school violence in Bogota, Colombia, 56% of the students reported having been robbed in their schools during past year. This qualitative study, of deductive nature, was intended to look at this phenomenon in depth by trying to understand larceny dynamics as well as moral indifference or lack of concern mechanisms likely to help those involved to feel less guilt. This study was carried out in a public, low socioeconomic status school, with high criminality levels in its community context. Initially, 227 sixth and eighth grade students took part in a survey relating to attitude vis-à-vis theft. Based on their answers, 20 students with high favorability levels were interviewed, while 40 having low or average favorability levels took part in focus groups. The results indicated that larceny activities in this school show a high degree of organization often involving elements of planning, task distribution, and threats. Moreover, according to the participants, robbery is strongly related to the presence of juvenile gangs in the school, along with lack of clear and consistent institutional response. It was also found that those involved resort to several moral indifference mechanisms, such as advantageous comparisons as well as displacement, misplacement or diffusion of responsibility and the attribution of guilt as suitable strategies to justify their actions. The study indicates that the implementation and assessment of interventions intended to prevent both larceny and youth involvement in early criminal careers is indeed urgent

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