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INTRODUCTION: Uremic toxicity changes the gut structure and permeability, allowing bacterial toxins to translocate from the lumen to the blood during chronic kidney failure (CKD). Clinical fluid overload and tissue edema without uremia have similar effects but have not been adequately demonstrated and analyzed in CKD. AIMS: To investigate the effect of sodium intake on the plasma concentration of gut-derived uremic toxins, indoxyl sulfate (IS), and p-cresyl sulfate (pCS) and the expression of genes and proteins of epithelial gut tight junctions in a rat model of CKD. METHODS: Sham-operated (control group, CG) and five-sixths nephrectomized (5/6Nx) Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to low (LNa), normal (NNa), or high sodium (HNa) diets., Animals were then sacrificed at 8 and 12 weeks and analyzed for IS and pCS plasma concentrations, as well as for gene and protein expression of thigh junction proteins, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) in colon fragments. RESULTS: The HNa 5/6Nx groups had higher concentrations of IS and pCS than CG, NNa, and LNa at eight and twelve weeks. Furthermore, HNa 5/6Nx groups had reduced expression of the claudin-4 gene and protein than CG, NNa, and LNa. HNa had reduced occludin gene expression compared to CG. Occludin protein expression was more reduced in HNa than in CG, NNa, and LNa. The gut epithelial tight junctions appear dilated in HNa compared to NNa and LNa in TEM. CONCLUSION: Dietary sodium intake and fluid overload have a significant role in gut epithelial permeability in the CKD model.

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The etiology of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) remains unclear, with both genetic and environmental factors potentially contributing. This study aimed to explore the relationship among gut microbiota (GM), intestinal permeability, and food intake with inflammatory markers in inactive SLE patients. A total of 22 women with inactive SLE and 20 healthy volunteers were enrolled, and dietary intake was assessed through 24-h dietary recalls. Plasma zonulin was used to evaluate intestinal permeability, while GM was determined by 16S rRNA sequencing. Regression models were used to analyze laboratory markers of lupus disease (C3 and C4 complement and C-reactive protein). Our results showed that the genus Megamonas was significantly enriched in the iSLE group (p < 0.001), with Megamonas funiformis associated with all evaluated laboratory tests (p < 0.05). Plasma zonulin was associated with C3 levels (p = 0.016), and sodium intake was negatively associated with C3 and C4 levels (p < 0.05). A combined model incorporating variables from each group (GM, intestinal permeability, and food intake) demonstrated a significant association with C3 complement levels (p < 0.01). These findings suggest that increased Megamonas funiformis abundance, elevated plasma zonulin, and higher sodium intake may contribute to reduced C3 complement levels in women with inactive SLE.

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BACKGROUND: In 2021, WHO notes that globally, 32% of annual deaths worldwide are due to cardiovascular causes, which have been attributed to excessive sodium intake, and therefore recommends a reduction in salt intake to less than 5 g/day. Ecuador does not have data on sodium consumption in the population. Hence, this study sought to determine the association between sodium consumption and sociodemographic variables in subjects living in urban areas of Ecuador. OBJECTIVES: Determine the main dietary sources of sodium in subjects living in urban areas of the Coast and Highlands of Ecuador, and the association between sodium intake and sociodemographic variables such as: sex, region, marital status, socio-economic and educational level of this population. METHODS: Sodium intake was studied in 800 subjects of both sexes aged 15 to 65 years living in urban areas in Ecuador, originating from the Latin American Nutrition and Health Study (ELANS) between 2014 and 2015. Data were obtained through two 24-hour recalls, and were accessed according to sex, region, age, marital status, socio-economic and educational levels. RESULTS: The mean sodium intake was 4900 mg/day (SD ± 1188.32 mg/day), and both sexes exceeded the recommendations. Adjusting for energy intake, sodium consumption is higher in participants aged 50-65 years, from low socio-economic status and with basic education level. A positive relationship was found between sodium and energy intake. Around 48% of the sodium sources included the spices, condiments and herbs group. Within this group, salt itself constitutes 99% of sodium sources. CONCLUSIONS: The Ecuadorian population consumes more than double the sodium recommendations, which vary according to gender and age. The first source of sodium is salt itself, which is part of spices and condiments food group. This data is important to formulate public health policies and interventions in Ecuador, especially in the population at risk.

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BACKGROUND: Sodium restriction is recommended for patients with heart failure (HF) despite the lack of solid clinical evidence from randomized controlled trials. Whether or not sodium restrictions provide beneficial cardiac effects is not known. METHODS: The present study is a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial of stable HF patients with ejection fraction ≤ 40%. Patients were allocated to sodium restriction (2 g of sodium/day) vs. control (3 g of sodium/day). The primary outcome was change in N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) at 20 weeks. Secondary outcomes included quality of life and adverse safety events (HF readmission, blood pressure or electrolyte abnormalities). RESULTS: Seventy patients were enrolled. Median baseline sodium consumption was 3268 (2225-4537) mg/day. Adherence to the intervention based on 24-hour urinary sodium was 32%. NT-proBNP and quality of life did not significantly change between groups (p > 0.05 for both). Adverse safety events were not significantly different between the arms (p > 0.6 for all). In the per protocol analysis, patients who achieved a sodium intake < 2500 mg/day at the intervention conclusion showed improvements in NT-proBNP levels (between-group difference: -55%, 95% confidence interval -27 to -73%; p = 0.002) and quality of life (between-group difference: -11 ± 5 points; p = 0.04). Blood pressure decreased in patients with lower sodium intake (between-group difference: -9 ± 5 mmHg; p = 0.05) without significant differences in symptomatic hypotension or other safety events (p > 0.3 for all). CONCLUSIONS: Adherence assessed by 24-hour natriuresis and by the nutritionist was poor. The group allocated to sodium restriction did not show improvement in NT-proBNP. However, patients who achieved a sodium intake < 2500 mg/day appeared to have improvements in NT-proBNP and quality of life without any adverse safety signals. CLINICALTRIALS: gov Identifier: NCT03351283.

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Reducing salt intake is considered one of the most cost-effective interventions to decrease morbidity and mortality resulting from noncommunicable diseases. This study aimed to describe changes in sodium intake in the Brazilian population using data from the National Dietary Surveys (NDS) conducted in 2008-2009 and 2017-2018. We hypothesized that over the 10-year period evaluated, sodium intake has remained high in Brazil. Nationwide representative samples of 34,003 and 46,164 individuals (aged ≥10 years) from NDS 2008-2009 and 2017-2018, respectively, were evaluated. Food consumption data were obtained from 2 nonconsecutive food records (NDS 2008-2009) and two 24-hour food recalls (NDS 2017-2018). Trends, percentiles of distribution, and proportions of the population exceeding the age-specific tolerable upper intake level for sodium were estimated. Dietary sodium intake was also estimated as a function of energy intake (mg/1000 kcal). Overall, mean crude daily sodium intake was slightly lower in 2017-2018 than in 2008-2009 (2489 mg/d vs. 2529 mg/d). The decrease in sodium intake (mg/day) was statistically significant (P < .05) only among female adolescents and subjects in the highest income level. Additionally, an overall statistically significant increase in dietary sodium density was observed independent of age, sex, and income level for energy-adjusted data (P < .05). Our findings indicate that sodium intake has not significantly changed over time in the Brazilian population; thus, policies aimed at reducing sodium intake in Brazil are necessary.

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BACKGROUND: Restriction of sodium intake is routinely recommended for patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Whether or not sodium intake is associated with the progression of CKD and mortality remains uncertain. We evaluated the association between urinary sodium excretion (as a surrogate for sodium intake) with the occurrence of renal failure and mortality in patients with non-dialytic CKD. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study of patients followed at a CKD clinic care hospital from October 2006 to March 2017. Adult patients with non-dialytic CKD were included. Using a time-to-event analysis, we examined the association of urinary sodium excretion as a categorical variable (categorized as quintiles: 1st quintile: 0.54-2.51 g; 2nd quintile: 2.52-3.11 g, 3rd quintile: 3.12-3.97 g, 4th quintile: 3.98-5.24 g and 5th quintile: 5.26-13.80 g) and the outcomes of interest. The primary outcome was defined as progression to end-stage renal disease requiring any type of renal replacement therapy. The secondary outcome was mortality. RESULTS: Two hundred five patients were included in the study (mean follow up of 2.6 years) with a mean eGFR of 26 (19-41) ml/min/1.73m2. 37 patients (18%) required renal replacement therapy and 52 (25,3%) died. There was association between urinary sodium excretion and need for renal replacement therapy (adjusted HR 0.245; 95%CI 0.660-0.912). There was no association between urinary sodium excretion and mortality in adjusted models. CONCLUSION: Moderate sodium intake was associated with a lower risk of renal failure.

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BACKGROUND: Approximately one-third of adults in Trinidad and Tobago have high blood pressure (hypertension). Excessive consumption of sodium (Na+) is a known risk factor for hypertension. AIM: We investigated Na+ and potassium (K+) intakes and their correlates in a multi-ethnic Caribbean population. METHOD: Volunteers completed a self-administered questionnaire comprising socio-demographic items, physical activity (PA) and a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. Foods eaten were classified by level of processing using the NOVA classification system and analysed for Na+ and K+ levels using appropriate dietary analysis software. The study was approved by the University of the West Indies at Saint Augustine Ethics Committee. RESULTS: 11,783 adults participated in the study. Approximately 83.2% of total calories, 79% of Na+ and 40% of K+ was derived from the consumption of highly processed foods. Median daily Na+ and K+ intakes were 2759 mg and 2853 mg, respectively. Na+ intakes showed significant nonlinear increases with age (p < 0.001) and body mass index (BMI) (p < 0.001), and non-linear decreases with educational attainment (p < 0.001). K+ intakes showed significant nonlinear decreases with age (p < 0.001) and BMI (p < 0.001), and linear increases with educational attainment (p < 0.001). Males had higher intakes of Na+ and K+ than females. Na+: K+ was lower among persons participating in moderate to high intensity PA ≥ 150 minutes/week compared to those participating in such activities < 150 minutes/week. CONCLUSION: Socio-demographic factors were significantly correlated with Na+ and K+ intakes among participants and must be considered in strategies aimed at achieving healthy intakes of these nutrients.

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Abstract Objective: To determine the sodium concentration in cow milk available for sale and to estimate its consumption by infants up to 6 months of age. Methods: Sodium level was determined by flame emission spectrophotometry in eight different lots of five brands of liquid ultra-high temperature milk and three brands of powdered milk. To estimate sodium consumption via cow milk, orientations for exceptional situations when neither breastfeeding nor infant formula is possible were considered. Inferential statistics were performed and results were compared with critical parameters at a 5% significance level. Results: The mean sodium content per portion found in liquid milk (162.5 ± 16.2) mg/200 mL was higher than that in powdered milk (116.8 ± 3.0) mg/26 g. Estimated sodium consumption by infants through powdered milk varied from 149.8 to 224.7% of adequate intake, and via liquid milk can be more than 500% of the adequate intake, reaching 812.4% of it if dilution is not applied. Seven of the eight brands of milk studied had declared, on their labels, that the sodium content was 13-30% lower than that found in chemical analysis. Conclusion: Liquid and powdered whole cow milk have high sodium content, and the content per portion is higher in liquid milk than in powdered milk. The estimated consumption of sodium through these products can far exceed the adequate intake for infants from 0 to 6 months old, even when the recommended dilution and maximum daily volumes are followed.

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RESUMEN En América Latina, 13% de todas las muertes y 5,1% de los años de vida ajustados por discapacidad se deben a la hipertensión. El exceso de sodio en la dieta puede incrementar aproximadamente un 30% el riesgo de hipertensión. El objetivo fue determinar la concentración de sodio en orina de 24 de horas para estimar la ingesta de sal en trabajadores del Ministerio de Salud Pública y Bienestar Social (MSPBS). Estudio transversal, en trabajadores de 25 a 64 años (n = 397) del MSPBS en Asunción-Paraguay en el 2014. La información sociodemográfica y económica, así como los factores de riesgo de enfermedades cardiovasculares, se evaluaron mediante un cuestionario validado y desarrollado por la OMS. Los niveles de sodio y potasio en orina de 24 horas se midieron usando un protocolo estandarizado. La mediana de la ingesta diaria de sal fue de 13,7 g. La mediana de la excreción de sodio en orina de 24 horas fue de 239 mEq, superando el valor de excreción de sodio recomendado en un 20%. Los hombres tuvieron una excreción de sodio en orina de 24 horas más alta que las mujeres tanto en el grupo de 25 a 44 años (251 mEq / 24 horas frente a 218 mEq/ 24 horas) como en el grupo de 45 a 64 años (266 mEq / 24 horas frente a 233 mEq / 24 horas) de los participantes del estudio. En conclusión, la ingesta de sal fue notablemente superior a la recomendada por la OMS (<5g/d).

ABSTRACT In Latin America, 13% of all deaths and 5.1% of disability-adjusted life years are due to hypertension. An excess of sodium in the diet may increase the risk of hypertension by 30%. The objective was to determine the 24-hour urine sodium concentration to estimate salt intake in employees of the Paraguayan Ministry of Public Health and Social Welfare (MSPBS). Cross-sectional study in 25-64 years-old employees (n=397) of the Ministry of Public Health and Social Welfare in Asuncion-Paraguay in 2014. Socio-demographic and -economic information as well as risk factors of cardiovascular diseases were assessed using a questionnaire validated and developed by the WHO. Sodium and potassium levels in the 24-hour urine were measured using a standardized protocol. The median salt intake per day was 13.7 g. The median of 24-hour urine sodium excretion was 239 mEq, exceeding the recommended sodium excretion value by 20%. Men had a higher 24-hour urine sodium excretion than women in both the 25-44 years-old group (251 mEq/24 hours vs. 218 mEq/24 hours) and the 45-64 years-old segment of the study participants (266 mEq/24 hours vs. 233 mEq/24 hours). In conclusion, salt intake was remarkably higher than recommended by WHO (<5g/d).

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OBJECTIVE: To determine the sodium concentration in cow milk available for sale and to estimate its consumption by infants up to 6 months of age. METHODS: Sodium level was determined by flame emission spectrophotometry in eight different lots of five brands of liquid ultra-high temperature milk and three brands of powdered milk. To estimate sodium consumption via cow milk, orientations for exceptional situations when neither breastfeeding nor infant formula is possible were considered. Inferential statistics were performed and results were compared with critical parameters at a 5% significance level. RESULTS: The mean sodium content per portion found in liquid milk (162.5±16.2) mg/200mL was higher than that in powdered milk (116.8±3.0) mg/26g. Estimated sodium consumption by infants through powdered milk varied from 149.8 to 224.7% of adequate intake, and via liquid milk can be more than 500% of the adequate intake, reaching 812.4% of it if dilution is not applied. Seven of the eight brands of milk studied had declared, on their labels, that the sodium content was 13-30% lower than that found in chemical analysis. CONCLUSION: Liquid and powdered whole cow milk have high sodium content, and the content per portion is higher in liquid milk than in powdered milk. The estimated consumption of sodium through these products can far exceed the adequate intake for infants from 0 to 6 months old, even when the recommended dilution and maximum daily volumes are followed.

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ABSTRACT BACKGROUND: Hypertension is an important public health problem. Overweight and high salt intake are risk factors for its development. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between salt taste sensitivity threshold (STST) and blood pressure (BP) in healthy adults. DESIGN AND SETTING: Cross-sectional study conducted in a private institution. METHODS: 104 healthy adults (aged 18-59 years) were evaluated. Sociodemographic, clinical and dietary data were collected. Nutritional status and BP were assessed using body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP). STST was assessed using graded saline solutions with sodium chloride concentrations ranging from 0.228 to 58.44 g/l. Identification of salty taste in solutions ≥ 3.652 g/l was used as the cutoff point for high STST. RESULTS: Participants with high STST presented higher daily average intakes for energy (2017.4 ± 641.5 versus 1650.5 ± 357.7 kcal/day; P = 0.01) and sodium (3070.2 ± 1195.1 versus 2435.2 ± 963.6 mg/day; P = 0.01) and higher BMI (P = 0.008) and WC (P = 0.002). After adjustment for age, sex, sodium and potassium intake, WC and family history of hypertension, the averages for SBP and DBP in subjects with high STST were higher than in those with normal STST (SBP: 138.2 ± 1.7 versus 119.7 ± 0.9 mmHg; P < 0.001; DBP: 81.2 ± 1.9 versus 75.1 ± 1.0 mmHg; P = 0.008). CONCLUSION: High STST was associated with elevated blood pressure in healthy adults, regardless of other risk factors for hypertension.

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INTRODUCTION: The assessment of sodium intake is difficult due to low accuracy of dietary records and to the inconvenience of 24-h urine collections. Therefore, equations based on spot urine samples have been proposed to estimate sodium intake. In this study, we aimed to develop and to validate equations to estimate 24-h urinary sodium excretion (24hUNa) from several urine samples in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. METHODS: Cross-sectional study with 76 CKD patients (males 55.3%; age: 64.5 [56.0-69.0] years; glomerular filtration rate 27.8 [24.7-32.1] mL/min). Sodium excretion was measured in 12-h daytime and 12-h nighttime collections; spot 1 (first urine of the day) and spot 2 (second urine of the day). By multivariable linear regression analysis, 4 equations were developed. The equations' accuracy was evaluated by P30 test. Association between estimated and measured 24hUNa was assessed by intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC); mean differences and limits of agreement by Bland-Altman plot. Data from 51 CKD patients of other CKD outpatient clinic were used to validate the equation developed from spot 2. RESULTS: The 4 equations showed significant (p < 0.001) ICC and relatively good accuracy when compared to 24hUNa (Daytime: ICC = 0.89; P30 = 84%; Nighttime: ICC = 0.90; P30 = 83%; spot 1: ICC = 0.85; P30 = 78%; and spot 2: ICC = 0.70; P30 = 76%). In validation set, the equation from spot 2 was moderately accurate (P30 = 67%). Mean bias and ICC were 19.9 mmol/day and 0.58 (p = 0.001), respectively. A high sensitivity (97%) and specificity (89%) were found for a cutoff of 3.6 g of sodium/day. CONCLUSION: Equations derived from 12 h collections better performed than spot urine when compared to gold standard 24hUNa. The equation from spot 2 showed good sensitivity to identify excessive sodium intake.

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Introducción: la ingesta de sodio en pacientes con hipertensión arterial (HTA) podría estar influenciada por variables sociodemográficas, clínicas, conocimientos y barreras percibidas por los mismos al momento de realizar un plan alimentario controlado en sodio. Objetivos: analizar la asociación entre la ingesta diaria de sodio y las barreras percibidas para realizar un plan alimentario controlado en sodio, el nivel de conocimientos sobre productos con alto contenido en sodio, sexo, edad, índice de masa corporal y tiempo de diagnóstico en pacientes con hipertensión arterial. Adicionalmente, determinar la proporción de conocimiento inadecuado sobre productos alimentarios con alto contenido en sodio. Materiales y método: se estimó la ingesta de sodio en 156 pacientes a partir de un registro alimentario y un cuestionario de frecuencia de consumo; el nivel de conocimientos y las barreras se determinaron a través de cuestionarios de elaboración propia. Resultados: la ingesta promedio de sodio fue de 4228 mg (IC95%= 3892 ­ 4563 mg), equivalente a 10,57g de sal. La ingesta de sodio se correlacionó negativamente con la edad (r= -0,26; p=0,001) y positivamente con el índice de masa corporal (r=0,3; p=0,000) y con las barreras percibidas (r=0,4; p=0,000). A su vez, la ingesta de sodio fue significativamente mayor (p=0,025) en quienes presentaron un conocimiento inadecuado. Según el análisis multivariado, el score final de barreras, sexo e índice de masa corporal podrían explicar alrededor del 30% de la variabilidad de la ingesta de sodio en pacientes hipertensos. Conclusiones: La HTA es una problemática vinculada al estilo de vida actual, por lo que su abordaje debería tener en cuenta los condicionantes y determinantes que influyen cada paciente(AU)

Introduction: sodium intake in patients with diagnosed hypertension could be influenced by socio-demographic and clinical variables, knowledge and barriers perceived at the moment of adopting a sodiumcontrolled diet plan. Objectives: to analyze association between daily sodium intake and barriers perceived to carry out a controlled-sodium diet plan, the level of knowledge about products with high sodium content, sex, age, body mass index (BMI) , and time since diagnosis in hypertensive patients. Additionally, to determine the proportion of inadequate knowledge about food products with high sodium content. Materials and methods: sodium intake was estimated in 156 patients from a food registry and a food frequency questionnaire; the level of knowledge and the barriers were determined through self-developed questionnaires. Results: the average sodium intake was 4228 mg (95% CI = 3892 - 4563 mg), equivalent to 10.57g of salt. Sodium intake correlated negatively with age (r = -0.26; p = 0.001) and positively with body mass index (r = 0.3; p = 0.000) and with perceived barriers (r = 0.4; p = 0.000). In addition, sodium intake was significantly higher (p = 0.025) in those who presented inadequate knowledge. As specified by the multivariate analysis, the final barrier score, sex and BMI could explain 30% of the variability of sodium intake in hypertensive patients. Conclusion: hypertension is a health problem related to current lifestyle, so approaches towards it should take into account the conditionings and determinants that influence on each patient(AU)

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BACKGROUND: We tested the hypothesis that a normal sodium diet could be associated with preservation of serum sodium during treatment of acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF). METHODS AND RESULTS: Forty-four patients hospitalized for ADHF were blindly randomized by using block method to a low sodium diet (LS: 3 g/day of dietary sodium chloride; n = 22, 59.5 ± 11.9 y.o., 50% males. LVEF = 30.0 ± 13.6%); and a normal sodium diet (NS: 7 g/day; n = 22, 56.4 ± 10.3 y.o., 68% males; LVEF = 27.8 ± 11.7%), and both groups were submitted to fluid restriction of 1.000 mL/day. At the 7th day of intervention 16 patients of LS group and 15 patients of NS group were assessed for difference in serum sodium. Both groups had equivalent decongestion, reflected by similar percent reduction of body weight (LS: -5.0 ± 4.7% vs NS: -4.5 ± 5.2%. p = 0.41). Reduction of the N terminal fragment of type B natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) was significant only in the NS (-1497.0 [-18843.0 - 1191.0]. p = 0.04). The LS group showed lower levels of serum sodium (135.4 ± 3.5 mmol/L) compared to the NS group (137.5 ± 1.9 mmol/L; p = 0.04). Four cases of hyponatremia were observed only in the LS group (22%). The NS group exhibited higher mean blood pressure values (79.4 ± 2.4 mmHg vs 75.5 ± 3.0 mmHg. p = 0.03), and lower heart rate (73.2 ± 1.6 bpm vs 75.5 ± 2.1 bpm. p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that a normal sodium diet, when compared to a low sodium diet, is associated with similar degrees of decongestion, but with higher levels of natremia, blood pressure and lower neurohormonal activation during ADHF treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier no. NCT03722069.

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Excessive dietary sodium is associated with elevated blood pressure (EBP). Bread products are identified as one of the main sources of daily sodium intake. The objective of this cross-sectional study was to evaluate the association between bread and others cereal products consumption with EBP. Frequency intake of a standard serving of bread and other cereal products was recorded and categorized as: ≤3 times/month or never (reference category group) and ≥ once/week. EBP was defined as systolic blood pressure (SBP) ≥120 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) ≥80 mmHg. Raw and adjusted odds ratios (OR) for the association between consumption of the studied food products and blood pressure status were estimated. Overall, 2011 participants aged 37.3 ± 9.1 years old were included. In the models adjusted for relevant covariates, consumption of one piece of bolillo or telera (OR = 1.39; 95% CI = 1.01⁻1.89) ≥ once/week was associated with an increased risk of EBP, compared to the reference category. Also, participants consuming one bowl of high-fiber breakfast cereal once/week were less likely to have EBP (OR = 0.73; 95% CI = 0.53⁻0.98). Initiatives to reduce sodium levels in bread products such as bolillo and telera are needed in Mexico to help manage the cardiovascular risk at the population level.

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Many environmental factors contribute to an effective immune response against Toxoplasma gondii (Tg) infection, among which diet is important in triggering the immune response of the host to infection. Emerging reports suggest that salt intake undermines the regulatory mechanisms mediated by innate and adaptive immune cells. Unfortunately, the impact of an Intermediate Salt Diet (ISD) on the pathogenesis and immune response to toxoplasmosis remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the susceptibility profile to an ISD (NaCl 2%) of two mouse strains (outbred Swiss and inbred C57BL6) infected by the ME49 strain of Tg. Our data confirm an antagonistic susceptibility to oral Tg infection among the two mouse strains. Sodium intake induced the highest mortality in C57BL6 compared to Swiss mice in the infected groups. A simultaneous ISD with the infection did not induce significant differences in body weight in either mouse strains. Both mouse strains showed an antagonistic response to a sodium intake diet on the number of parasite brain cysts. An increased number of brain cysts in C57BL6 ISD-Tg animals were noted while Swiss ISD-Tg animals presented a decrease in the number of brain cysts compared to NSD-Tg (Normal Salt Diet) for both mouse strains. Furthermore, sodium intake caused a significant reduction in the specific humoral immune response against Tg in inbred C57BL6 mice. Thus, our data reveal that an ISD affects the humoral immune response in the murine model and influences the course of Tg infection.

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Resumen La sal es necesaria para el buen funcionamiento del organismo, pero el aumento excesivo de su ingesta está produciendo incremento en la incidencia de hipertensión arterial (HTA), la que constituye el principal factor de riesgo de muerte en el mundo, y el segundo de discapacidad por enfermedad cardiaca y accidente cerebrovascular. El objetivo de este trabajo fue revisar, desde una perspectiva actual, las relaciones existentes entre el consumo de sal (CNS) y la salud pública, haciendo énfasis en la HTA, así como en las políticas existentes encaminadas a reducir su sobreuso. Múltiples estudios señalan que la reducción del CNS en la población es una de las medidas más eficaces. Sin embargo, la adición de sal durante el cocinado no es el único problema, ya que la mayor cantidad proviene de los alimentos preparados o precocinados. Por tanto, la lucha contra el consumo excesivo de sal debe concebirse como una actividad permanente de los servicios médicos, con el apoyo constante de las autoridades públicas y la colaboración de las industrias alimentarias, a través de reducir o eliminar la adición de sal de los preparados, siguiendo las recomendaciones científicas emitidas en los últimos años.

Abstract Salt is necessary for the proper functioning of the organism, but the excessive use of it in feeding has increased the incidence of arterial hypertension (AHT), which constitutes the main risk factor of death in the world, and the second of disability due to heart disease and brain strokes. The aim of this work was to review, from a current perspective, the relationships between salt consumption (SCN) and public health, with emphasis on AHT, as well as in the existing policies aimed at reducing its overuse. Multiple studies indicate that the reduction of SCN is one of the most effective measures. However, the addition of salt during cooking is not the only problem, since the greatest amount of salt comes from precooked foods. Therefore, the fight against excessive SCN should be conceived as a permanent activity of medical services, with the constant support of public authorities, and collaboration of food industries by reducing or eliminating salt addition from prepared meals, following the scientific recommendations issued in recent years.

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BACKGROUND: Hypertension affects almost all chronic kidney disease patients and is related to poor outcomes. Sodium intake is closely related to blood pressure (BP) levels in this population and decreasing its intake consistently improves the BP control particularly in short-term controlled trials. However, most patients struggle in following a controlled diet on sodium according to the guidelines recommendation due to several factors and barriers discussed in this article. SUMMARY: This review article summarizes the current knowledge related to the associations between sodium consumption, BP, and the risk of cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease (CKD); it also provides recommendations of how to achieve sodium intake lowering. Key Messages: Evidences support the benefits in decreasing sodium intake on markers of cardiovascular and renal outcomes in CKD. Trials had shorter follow-up and to maintain long-term sodium intake control is a major challenge. Larger studies with longer follow-up looking at hard endpoints will be important to drive future recommendations.

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The maximum content of sodium in selected processed foods (PF) in Argentina was limited by a law enacted in 2013. Data about intake of these and other foods are necessary for policy planning, implementation, evaluation, and monitoring. We examined data from the CESCAS I population-based cohort study to assess the main dietary sources among PF and frequency of discretionary salt use by sex, age, and education attainment, before full implementation of the regulations in 2015. We used a validated 34-item FFQ (Food Frequency Questionnaire) to assess PF intake and discretional salt use. Among 2127 adults in two Argentinean cities, aged 35-76 years, mean salt intake from selected PFs was 4.7 g/day, higher among male and low education subgroups. Categories of foods with regulated maximum limits provided near half of the sodium intake from PFs. Use of salt (always/often) at the table and during cooking was reported by 9% and 73% of the population, respectively, with higher proportions among young people. Reducing salt consumption to the target of 5 g/day may require adjustments to the current regulation (reducing targets, including other food categories), as well as reinforcing strategies such as education campaigns, labeling, and voluntary agreement with bakeries.

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BACKGROUND: Renovascular hypertension (2-kidney 1-clip model (2K1C)) is characterized by renin-angiotensin system (RAS) activation. Increased Angiotensin II (AngII) leads to sympathoexcitation, oxidative stress, and alterations in sodium and water balance. AIM: The aim of this study was to evaluate whether a discrete increase in sodium chloride intake in 2K1C rats leads to changes in cardiovascular and autonomic function, oxidative stress, and renin angiotensin aldosterone system. METHODS: After 4 weeks of induction of hypertension, rats were fed a normal sodium diet (0.4% NaCl) or a high-sodium diet (2% NaCl) for 2 consecutive weeks. Experiments were carried out for 6 weeks after clipping. Mean arterial pressure (MAP), renal sympathetic nerve activity (rSNA), arterial baroreflex control of rSNA, and heart rate (HR) were assessed. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and glutathione were measured as indicators of systemic oxidative stress. Angiostensin-converting enzyme (ACE), ACE2, and angiotensinogen were evaluated in clipped and unclipped kidneys as also urinary angiotensinogen and plasma renin activity. Angiotensinogen, plasma renin activity (PRA) and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and ACE2 in clipped and unclipped kidneys were evaluated. RESULTS: High-sodium diet did not change systemic oxidative stress, and basal values of MAP, HR, or rSNA; however, increased renal (-0.7±0.2 vs. -1.5±0.1 spikes/s/mm Hg) and cardiac (-0.9±0.14 vs. -1.5±0.14 bpm/mm Hg) baroreceptor reflex sensitivity in 2K1C rats. Although there was no alteration in PRA, a high-salt diet significantly decreased urinary angiotensinogen, ACE, and ACE2 expressions in the clipped and unclipped kidneys. CONCLUSIONS: Increased arterial baroreceptor control associated with a suppression of the intrarenal RAS in the 2K1C rats on high-salt diet provide a salt-resistant effect on hypertension and sympathoexcitation in renovascular hypertensive rats.

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