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The study seeks to make a first estimate of the economic impact of lesions and poisonings in Brazil, measured in terms of hospital expenses on internments--in days of general permanence and in Intensive Care Units. Internments is hospital under contracts with the United Health System are analysed by means of the AIH-- Authorization for Hospital Internment. These internments involve expenses per annum corresponding to approximately 0.07% of the GNP of the country. With regard to mortality, the economic impact has been analysed by the use of the Potential Years of Life Lost indicator. It may be verified that accidents and acts of violence represented about 2.6 million years of life lost in 1981, and 3.4 millions in 1991. The increase was thus of about 30%, even though for the total of data deaths showed a reduction. Despite some limitations, it is possible to estimate the general magnitude of the economic impact of external causes of death. It is hoped that these limitations may serve as a stimulus to new and deeper investigations.

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The treatment of tuberculosis (TB) is ranked as the most cost effective of all therapeutic programmes in terms of cost per year of life saved. Nevertheless, TB kills or debilitates more adults aged between 15 and 59 years than any other disease in the world; furthermore, about 2 to 4% of the burden of disease, 7% of all deaths and 26% of all preventable deaths are directly attributable to TB. About one-third of the world's population is infected with the TB bacillus. In the developing world, more women of childbearing age die from TB than from causes directly associated with pregnancy and childbirth. The death of adults in their prime, who are parents, community leaders and producers in most societies, causes a particularly onerous burden besides being a serious public health problem. In the poorest countries, where the magnitude of the TB problem is greatest, those TB control strategies that are economically feasible tend to be less effective. Therefore, in low and middle income countries, cost-effectiveness considerations aimed at prioritising resource allocation in the health sector in general, and in TB control programmes in particular, are of paramount importance. Operationally, the main components of a TB control programme are: (i) detection and treatment of TB; and (ii) prevention of TB through BCG vaccination and chemoprophylaxis. Priority should be given to ensuring that TB patients complete their prescribed course of chemotherapy. Adequate treatment is the most effective way of preventing the spread of TB and the emergence of drug resistance. This article reviews evidence of the effectiveness and cost effectiveness of different approaches to TB care, particularly those that are applicable to low income countries, in both HIV-infected and noninfected patients. Financial implications and ways to implement directly observed therapy for TB in large urban areas are discussed, and the need to address some relevant operational issues is highlighted. The current role of chemoprophylaxis and BCG vaccination is also reviewed.

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This paper compares the results of two nationally representative nutritional surveys carried out in Brazil: the "Estudo Nacional de Despesa Familiar (ENDEF)" (National Survey on Household Expenses), conducted in 1974-77, and the "Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde e Nutrição (PNSN)" (National Survey on Health and Nutrition), conducted in 1989. The findings point to a reduction of more than 60% in the prevalence of undernutrition, as evaluated by anthropometric parameters. The results from regional surveys and the trends in infant mortality throughout the 1970s and 1980s are consistent with the improvements in nutritional status. Less striking reductions in undernutrition rates were observed in certain regions of the country (e.g., the North and Northeast), where prevalences were higher in the 1970s, resulting in a widening of regional differences. The improvements in child nutrition are attributed to moderate increases in family income, particularly in the 1970s, and to the expansion of sanitation, public health, and educational services, as well as food supplementation programs, which were also favored by a fall in fertility levels. The authors call attention to the fact that the lack of clear-cut indications of economic recovery in Brazil recently, coupled wih cuts in government budgets for social services and the persistence of inequality in income distribution, among other factors, make it unlikely that improvements in nutritional status, as observed in the 1970, will take place in the upcoming years.

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The prevalence of malnutrition among under-5-year-olds in Brazil fell by more than 60% between 1975 and 1989. The benefits were smaller for population strata that were more affected by malnutrition in the 1970s, i.e., children from the North and North-east regions and those from poor families in general. Regional and socioeconomic differentials in the prevalence of malnutrition therefore increased between 1975 and 1989. Trends in family income indicate extraordinary economic gains in the 1970s, some losses in the 1980s, and a modest net gain over the period 1975-89. The availability of sanitation, health, and education services, and the provision of preschool supplementary feeding programmes increased markedly in the 1970s and 1980s. Demographic trends were also positive, reducing the demand for services and programmes, increasing the economic efficiency of families, and concentrating the population in urban areas, where incomes, job opportunities, and social and material infrastructures are better. The observed nutritional improvement was therefore probably due to a moderate increase in family income associated with a substantial expansion in the provision of services and programmes, both of which were facilitated by favourable demographic trends. Also, the nutritional improvement was probably concentrated during the 1970s, while little, if any, occurred after 1980; prospects for the 1990s point to a stagnant situation. This is a reason for great concern particularly in the North and North-east regions of the country, where high rates of child malnutrition are still found.

PIP: Nutritionists used 2 surveys (1975 and 1989) to determine the trends in the nutritional status of children 5 years old in Brazil. Malnutrition rates fell by 61.4% between 1975 and 1989 (18.4% vs. 7.1%). Improvements in child nutrition occurred countrywide, but they were less in the North and the Northeast (56.7% and 52.6% respectively) than in the other regions (69.2%-78.6%). In fact, the gap between these regions and the other regions was wider in 1989 than it was in 1975 (e.g., prevalence ratio between the Northeast and the South, 2.5 in 1975 and 5 in 1989). In the Southeast and the South, nutrition improvement occurred basically equally for rural and urban children, but the percentage of rural malnourished children was still higher than it was for urban malnourished children (6.2% vs. 3.7% and 3% vs. 2.1% respectively). In the Northeast, rural children suffered more relative excess malnutrition in 1989 than they did in 1975. A sizable reduction in childhood malnutrition prevalence rates occurred in all 4 income groups, but the poorest children benefited the least (55.6% vs. 77% for the richest group). Since children most affected by malnutrition in the 1970s (i.e., children from the North and Northeast and the poor) gained the least, regional and socioeconomic differences in the prevalence of malnutrition expanded between 1975 and 1989. Modest increases in income linked to considerable expansion of sanitation, health, and education services and of preschool supplementary feeding programs were most likely responsible for nutritional improvement. In addition, fertility rates fell (5.8-3) during this period. Improvement was largely restricted to the 1970s, however. After 1980, little or no improvement occurred. Little hope for economic recovery, continued economic inequalities, and reduced spending on social programs indicated a stagnant situation for the 1990s.

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There are many circumstances in which the effectiveness of preventive measures depends to a large extent on the compliance of the patient in changing his or her behavior or lifestyle. It is shown how economic techniques can be used (i) to describe the rationale of individuals and predict their behavior (Section 2); and (ii) to assess preventive measures that, by requiring a change of conduct, imply "costs" to the individual due to a decline in the quality of life (Appendix). Cigarette smoking and coronary heart disease are used as an illustration. While the analysis of Section 2 uses graphical techniques, a simple textbook-type of lifetime utility model with a mathematical emphasis is used in the Appendix. It is also shown that techniques often used to assess health care programs such as the QALYs (Quality-Adjusted Life Years) are inappropriate to the evaluation of preventive programs aiming at behavioral changes. Finally, topics that call for further research are indicated.

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