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INTRODUCTION: Studies have identified a greater risk of sensory neural hearing loss in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) compared to healthy individuals, but it is unclear whether they are at increased risk of hearing loss with impaired speech recognition. The aim of this study was to assess whether COPD is associated with hearing loss that affects speech recognition. METHODS: This is a case-control study. We screened individuals from health facilities in the municipality of Jundiai. We enrolled a test group of individuals with COPD and an age-matched control group composed of individuals with asthma. The selected individuals attended an appointment with a chest physician, responded to questionnaires, and underwent tonal and speech audiometry. Adjusted binary logistic regression analysis evaluated whether COPD was associated with reduced speech recognition. RESULTS: We enrolled 36 individuals with COPD and 72 with asthma. Individuals with COPD were more likely to have a reduced speech recognition compared to asthmatic individuals (reduced recognition of three-syllable words: adjusted OR 3.72, 95 CI [1.38-10.02]) (reduced recognition of monosyllable words: adjusted OR 4.74, 95 CI [1.52-14.76]). CONCLUSION: We conclude that individuals with COPD from primary and secondary healthcare facilities have at least 38% greater risk of hearing loss with reduced speech recognition compared to an age-matched control group of individuals with asthma recruited from the same facilities. We recommend that longitudinal studies evaluate whether regular screening could contribute to the prevention or early treatment of hearing loss in individuals with moderate-severe COPD.

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Pupil dilation has been associated with the effort required to perform various cognitive tasks. At the lexical level, some studies suggest that this neurophysiological measure would provide objective, real-time information during word processing and lexical access. However, due to the scarcity and incipient advancement of this line of research, its applicability, use, and sensitivity are not entirely clear. This scoping review aims to determine the applicability and usefulness of pupillometry in the study of lexical access by providing an up-to-date overview of research in this area. Following the PRISMA protocol, 16 articles were included in this review. The results show that pupillometry is a highly applicable, useful, and sensitive method for assessing lexical skills of word recognition, word retrieval, and semantic activation. Moreover, it easily fits into traditional research paradigms and methods in the field. Because it is a non-invasive, objective, and automated procedure, it can be applied to any population or age group. However, the emerging development of this specific area of research and the methodological diversity observed in the included studies do not yet allow for definitive conclusions in this area, which in turn does not allow for meta-analyses or fully conclusive statements about what the pupil response actually reflects when processing words. Standardized pupillary recording and analysis methods need to be defined to generate more accurate, replicable research designs with more reliable results to strengthen this line of research.

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Introduction: Across multiples languages, research demonstrates the important relationship between reading fluency and comprehension. Put simply, a fluent reader has greater attention and memory resources to use higher-order functions in reading, resulting in better comprehension of text. Some reading fluency interventions have shown positive results in improving students' text reading fluency and comprehension; however, this research has predominantly been conducted with English-speaking students. For instance, until this report, a comprehensive search revealed only one prior study that evaluated an intervention strategy designed to improve students' reading fluency in Brazilian Portuguese and no prior studies evaluated an intervention program with that population of students. Methods: The main goals of this two-part project were to (a) systematically translate, culturally adapt, and pilot test the Helping Early Literacy with Practice Strategies (HELPS) reading fluency program for use in Brazilian Portuguese (referred to as, HELPS-PB); and (b) conduct a preliminary quasi-experimental study of the HELPS-PB program with 23 students in grades 3 to 5 who needed a reading fluency intervention. Results and Discussion: This report documents the processes and successful adaptation of existing English- and Spanish-versions of HELPS into a new HELPS-PB program. It also offers preliminary evidence showing that students receiving HELPS-PB significantly improved their text reading fluency comparted to students in a control group. Implications for research, practice, and the adaptation of reading fluency programs into other languages are discussed.

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During the fourth age, a marked physiological deterioration and critical points of dysfunction are observed, during which cognitive performance exhibits a marked decline in certain skills (fluid intelligence) but good performance of others (crystallized intelligence). Experimental evidence describes important constraints on word production during old age, accompanied by a relative stabilization of speech comprehension. However, cognitive changes associated with advanced aging could also affect comprehension, particularly word recognition. The present study examines how the visual recognition of words is affected during the fourth age when tasks involving different cognitive loads are applied. Through linear regression models, performance was compared between two third-age groups and a fourth-age group on reaction time (RT) and accuracy in naming, priming and lexical decision experiments. The fourth-age group showed a significant RT increase in all experiments. In contrast, accuracy was good when the task involved a low cognitive demand (Experiments 1 and 2); however, when a decisional cognitive factor was included (Experiment 3), the fourth-age group performed significantly worse than the younger third-age group. We argue that the behavior observed among fourth-age individuals is consistent with an unbalanced cognitive configuration, in which the fluid intelligence deficit significantly reduces the speed necessary to recognize words, independent of the cognitive load associated with the test. In contrast, the maintenance in crystallized intelligence improves the accuracy of the process, strengthening linguistic functionality in the advanced stages of old age.

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The transition from on-paper to on-screen reading seems to make it necessary to raise some considerations, as a greater attentional effort has been claimed for print texts than digital ones. Not surprisingly, most university students prefer this digital medium. This research aims to examine reading times by contextualizing this phenomenon into two processes: namely, word recognition and reading comprehension task on paper and on screen. Thus, two different tasks-counterbalanced into digital and print mediums-were carried out per each participant with a preference for a digital medium: a reading comprehension task (RCT) and a lexical decision task (LDT) after reading a specific story. Participants were slower reading print texts and no statistically significant differences were found in RCT accuracy. This result suggests that the task required more cognitive resources under the print medium for those with a worse comprehension performance in reading, and a more conservative pattern in digital RCT for those with a better performance.

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The transition from on-paper to on-screen reading seems to make it necessary to raise some considerations, as a greater attentional efort has been claimed for print texts than digital ones. Not surprisingly, most university students prefer this digital medium. This research aims to examine reading times by contextualizing this phenomenon into two processes: namely, word recognition and reading comprehension task on paper and on screen. Thus, two diferent tasks­counterbalanced into digital and print mediums­were carried out per each participant with a preference for a digital medium: a reading comprehension task (RCT) and a lexical decision task (LDT) after reading a specifc story. Participants were slower reading print texts and no statistically signifcant diferences were found in RCT accuracy. This result suggests that the task required more cognitive resources under the print medium for those with a worse comprehension performance in reading, and a more conservative pattern in digital RCT for those with a better performance.

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O Modelo de Leitura de Dupla Rota é relevante tanto para o entendimento do processo de leitura como para a compreensão leitora. Este estudo objetivou investigar a contribuição da consciência fonológica (rota fonológica) e do reconhecimento de palavras (rota lexical), bem como do ano escolar para a habilidade de leitura em voz alta de palavras isoladas e a compreensão de leitura no português do Brasil. Participaram desta pesquisa 443 alunos do 3º ao 5º ano de Ensino Fundamental I, de escolas públicas de todas as regiões do Brasil. Os instrumentos utilizados foram o Cloze 1 e Cloze 2, Prova de Leitura do Teste de Desempenho Escolar, Roteiro de Avaliação de Consciência Fonológica e Escala de Reconhecimento de Palavras. Os resultados indicaram que o valor explicativo da mediação do reconhecimento de palavras na relação preditiva indireta da consciência fonológica foi maior para compreensão de leitura do que para leitura. A contribuição explicativa da mediação do reconhecimento de palavras na relação preditiva do ano escolar apresentou valores próximos para leitura e compreensão de leitura. É possível concluir que mesmo com o controle do ano escolar, tanto a rota fonológica como a rota lexical predizem a leitura e a compreensão leitora. (AU)

The Dual Route Reading Model is relevant to both understanding the reading process and reading comprehension. This study aimed to investigate the contribution of phonological awareness (phonological route) and word recognition (lexical route) and the school year for the ability to read aloud single words and reading comprehension in Brazilian Portuguese. Participated 443 students from Elementary School (3rd to the 5th grade). The schools were public and are located in the five regions of Brazil. The instruments used were Cloze 1 and Cloze 2, School Performance Test Reading Test, Phonological Awareness Assessment Guide, and Word Recognition Scale. The results indicated that the explanatory value of mediating word recognition in the indirect predictive relationship of phonological awareness was greater for reading comprehension than for reading. The explanatory contribution of the mediation of word recognition in the predictive relationship of the school year presented similar values for reading and reading comprehension. It is possible to conclude that even with the control of the school year, both the phonological route and the lexical route predict reading and reading comprehension. (AU)

El modelo de lectura de ruta dual es relevante tanto para comprender el proceso de lectura como para la comprensión lectora. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo investigar la contribución de la conciencia fonológica (ruta fonológica) y el reconocimiento de palabras (ruta léxica), así como el año escolar para la capacidad de leer en voz alta palabras sueltas y la comprensión lectora en portugués brasileño. En esta investigación participaron un total de 443 estudiantes del 3º al 5º grado del Ensino Fundamenral, de escuelas públicas de todas las regiones de Brasil. Los instrumentos utilizados fueron Cloze 1 y Cloze 2, Prueba de Desempeño Escolar, Prueba de Lectura, Guía de Evaluación de la Conciencia Fonológica y Escala de Reconocimiento de Palabras. Los resultados indicaron que el valor explicativo de mediar en el reconocimiento de palabras en la relación predictiva indirecta de la conciencia fonológica fue mayor para la comprensión lectora que para la lectura. El aporte explicativo de la mediación del reconocimiento de palabras en la relación predictiva del curso escolar presentó valores similares para lectura y comprensión lectora. Es posible concluir que aún con el control del curso escolar, tanto la vía fonológica como la vía léxica predicen lectura y comprensión lectora. (AU)

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In human speech and communication across various species, recognizing and categorizing sounds is fundamental for the selection of appropriate behaviors. However, how does the brain decide which action to perform based on sounds? We explored whether the supplementary motor area (SMA), responsible for linking sensory information to motor programs, also accounts for auditory-driven decision making. To this end, we trained two rhesus monkeys to discriminate between numerous naturalistic sounds and words learned as target (T) or non-target (nT) categories. We found that the SMA at single and population neuronal levels perform decision-related computations that transition from auditory to movement representations in this task. Moreover, we demonstrated that the neural population is organized orthogonally during the auditory and the movement periods, implying that the SMA performs different computations. In conclusion, our results suggest that the SMA integrates acoustic information in order to form categorical signals that drive behavior.

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Abstract The aim of the present study was to identify the predictors of early-grade reading acquisition in monolingual speakers of a transparent language. Eighty students attending preschool (M = 5 years, SD = 0.40), first grade (M = 6 years, SD = 0.59) and second grade (M = 7 years, SD = 0.55) in a public institution participated in the study. All were evaluated with the Early Grade Reading Acquisition test, an ad hoc sociodemographic questionnaire and the language domain of the Child Neuropsychological Assessment battery. Multiple regression analysis showed that phonological awareness and years of education are the factors that explain reading performance of children in their early years of school. These findings highlight the importance of improving oral skills prior to early reading acquisition and contribute to enhancing the early reading skills of monolingual children with limited socioeconomic opportunities.

Resumo O presente estudo teve como objetivo identificar os preditores da leitura inicial de uma linguagem transparente em crianças monolíngues. Oitenta alunos pertencentes à educação infantil N3 (M = 5 anos, DE = 0.40), 1ª série (M = 6 anos, DE = 0.59) e 2ª série (M = 7 anos, DE = 0.55) do ensino fundamental participaram do estudo. As crianças foram avaliadas por meio do teste Early Grade Reading Acquisition, por um questionário sociodemográfico ad hoc e apenas pelo Domínio da Linguagem do teste Evaluación Neuropsicológica Infantil. A análise de regressão múltipla mostrou que a consciência fonológica e o nível de escolaridade são os fatores que explicam o desempenho na leitura em crianças nas primeiras séries. Os resultados deste estudo sugerem a importância de promover habilidades orais antes da aquisição da leitura inicial, para melhorar o aprendizado da leitura de crianças monolíngues com limitadas oportunidades socioeconômicas.

Resumen El presente estudio tuvo por objetivo identificar los predictores de la lectura inicial en niños monolingües de un lenguaje transparente. Ochenta estudiantes que cursaban los grados de transición (M = 5 años, DE = 0.40), primero (M = 6 años, DE = 0.59) y segundo de primaria (M = 7 años, DE = 0.55) en una institución pública, participaron en el estudio. Todos fueron evaluados con la prueba Early Grade Reading Acquisition, un cuestionario sociodemográfico ad hoc y el dominio de Lenguaje de la batería Evaluación Neuropsicológica Infantil. Los análisis de regresión múltiple mostraron que la conciencia fonológica y el grado de escolaridad son los factores que explican el desempeño lector de niños de los primeros grados escolares. Estos hallazgos destacan la importancia de promover habilidades orales previas a la adquisición de la lectura inicial, para mejorar el aprendizaje lector de niños monolingües, con limitadas oportunidades socio-económicas.

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The role of the syllable in written word recognition is an open question in psycholinguistic studies about reading. We analyzed the effects of a syllabic highlight technique on the reading performance of students in the 2nd degree of elementary school. Seventy-two children (mean age of 7,7 years) performed a collective test to identify their reading level (TCLPP). Afterwards, they were distributed in two equivalent groups and individually submitted to an oral words and pseudowords reading test (LPI), written with and without the technique, according to a crossover design. Syllabic highlight technique had significant positive effects on reading performance, particularly for less skilled readers. The repetition of the task enhanced the effectiveness of the technique. The results support the hypothesis that the syllable is an important linguistic unit in word recognition in Brazilian Portuguese. The syllabic highlight can be an effective strategy to construction of material for teaching and remediation of reading difficulties.

O papel da sílaba na leitura de palavras é uma questão em aberto na literatura. Analisamos os efeitos de uma técnica de destaque silábico, sobre o desempenho em leitura de alunos do 2º ano do Ensino Fundamental. Setenta e duas crianças (média de 7,7 anos) realizaram um teste coletivo para identificação do nível de leitura (TCLPP). Após, foram distribuídas em dois grupos equivalentes e submetidas a um teste de leitura de palavras e pseudopalavras (LPI), com e sem uso da técnica, conforme delineamento crossover. A técnica silábica teve efeitos positivos significativos sobre o desempenho em leitura, particularmente para os leitores menos hábeis. A repetição da tarefa potencializou a eficácia da técnica. Os resultados suportam a hipótese de que a sílaba é uma unidade linguística importante no reconhecimento de palavras no português brasileiro. O destaque silábico pode ser uma estratégia eficaz na elaboração de material para o ensino e remediação das dificuldades de leitura.

El papel de la sílaba en la lectura es una cuestión abierta en la literatura. Analizamos los efectos de una técnica de destaque silábico, sobre el desempeño en lectura de 72 alumnos del 2º año de la Enseñanza Fundamental (media de 7,7 años). Estos realizaron una prueba colectiva para identificar su nivel de lectura (TCLPP). Después, fueron distribuidos en dos grupos equivalentes y sometidos a una prova de lectura de palabras y pseudo-palabras (LPI), con y sin uso de la técnica, conforme delineamiento crossover. La técnica silábica tuvo efectos positivos significativos, particularmente para los lectores menos hábiles. La repetición de la tarea potenció su eficacia. Los resultados apoyan la hipótesis de que la sílaba es una importante unidad lingüística en el reconocimiento de las palabras en portugués de Brasil. El destaque silábico puede ser una estrategia eficaz en la elaboración de material para la enseñanza y remediación de las dificultades de lectura.

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Abstract Shared book reading favors incidental learning of vocabulary; however, studies indicate that the previous vocabulary level of the child interferes with learning. The aim of this study was to compare the learning relations between pseudowords and figures of children aged 3 and 7 years in a shared book reading situation and to investigate the possible occurrence of the Matthew Effect. A book with four pseudowords developed for this study was read three consecutive times to 10 children of each age group. Matching-to-sample, exclusion, naming, and description of the use probes were applied immediately after the reading and one week later. No significant differences were found between the performances of both groups, except for the exclusion probes, without incidence of the Matthew Effect. Learning words is a continuous process that involves frequency and contexts of exposure to the words.

Resumo A leitura compartilhada de histórias favorece a aprendizagem incidental de vocabulário, mas estudos indicam que o nível de vocabulário prévio da criança interfere nessa aprendizagem. O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar a aprendizagem de relações entre pseudopalavras e figuras por crianças de 3 e 7 anos em situação de leitura compartilhada de histórias e a possível ocorrência do Matthew Effect. Um livro especialmente elaborado para esta pesquisa foi lido por três vezes consecutivas para 10 crianças de cada grupo etário, apresentando quatro pseudopalavras. Sondas de emparelhamento ao modelo, exclusão, nomeação e descrição da utilidade foram aplicadas logo após a leitura e uma semana depois. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre os desempenhos dos dois grupos, exceto nas sondas de exclusão, sem o registro de ocorrência do Matthew Effect. A aprendizagem de palavras é um processo contínuo e envolve condições como a frequência e os contextos de exposição às palavras.

Resumen La lectura compartida de libros favorece el aprendizaje incidental de vocabulario; sin embargo, los estudios apuntan que el nivel de vocabulario previo del niño interfiere en este aprendizaje. El presente estudio buscó comparar el aprendizaje de relaciones entre pseudopalabras y figuras en niños de entre 3 y 7 años en situación de lectura compartida de cuentos, así como la posible ocurrencia del Matthew Effect. Un libro no comercial se leyó tres veces consecutivas a 10 niños de cada grupo de edad, presentándoles cuatro pseudopalabras. Se aplicaron pruebas de igualación a la muestra, exclusión y denominación inmediatamente después de la lectura y una semana después de la misma. No se hallaron diferencias significativas en los desempeños de ambos grupos, a excepción de las pruebas de exclusión, y no se registró la ocurrencia del Matthew Effect. El aprendizaje de palabras es un proceso continuo e involucra condiciones como la frecuencia y los contextos de exposición a las palabras.

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Emotions are considered distractions that often prompt subsequent actions. In this way, the aim of this work was to examine the role of distracting stimuli on the relationship of RT and accuracy. In order to do that, a word recognition task was carried out in which emotional valence was manipulated. More precisely, a mediational model, testing how changes in distracting stimuli mediate RT predicting accuracy across emotional conditions, was carried out. The results suggest that changes in task demands should distract from the secondary task to the extent that these task demands implicate and affect accuracy. Moreover, the distracting task seems to mediate between accuracy and the target task under emotional stimuli, showing the negative distracting condition to be the most remarkable effect. Furthermore, neutral distracting latencies did not affect accuracy. Understanding the mechanisms by which emotion impairs cognitive functions has important implications in several fields, such as affective disorders. However, the effects of emotion on goal-directed cognitive processing remain unclear.

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Abstract Emotions are considered distractions that often prompt subsequent actions. In this way, the aim of this work was to examine the role of distracting stimuli on the relationship of RT and accuracy. In order to do that, a word recognition task was carried out in which emotional valence was manipulated. More precisely, a mediational model, testing how changes in distracting stimuli mediate RT predicting accuracy across emotional conditions, was carried out. The results suggest that changes in task demands should distract from the secondary task to the extent that these task demands implicate and affect accuracy. Moreover, the distracting task seems to mediate between accuracy and the target task under emotional stimuli, showing the negative distracting condition to be the most remarkable effect. Furthermore, neutral distracting latencies did not affect accuracy. Understanding the mechanisms by which emotion impairs cognitive functions has important implications in several fields, such as affective disorders. However, the effects of emotion on goal-directed cognitive processing remain unclear.

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Although studies have consistently demonstrated that children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) perform significantly lower than controls on word recognition and spelling tests, such studies rely on the assumption that those groups are comparable in these measures. This study investigates comparability of word recognition and spelling tests based on diagnostic status for ADHD through measurement invariance methods. The participants (n = 1,935; 47% female; 11% ADHD) were children aged 6-15 with normal IQ (≥70). Measurement invariance was investigated through Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes models. Measurement invariance was attested in both methods, demonstrating the direct comparability of the groups. Children with ADHD were 0.51 SD lower in word recognition and 0.33 SD lower in spelling tests than controls. Results suggest that differences in performance on word recognition and spelling tests are related to true mean differences based on ADHD diagnostic status. Implications for clinical practice and research are discussed.

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Abstract: The importance of language and its formal instruction during the initial school phase has stimulated studies that seek options to implement them successfully. From this perspective, this study aimed to verify the effects of an intervention program on the language skills assessed. The participants were sixth-grade elementary school students evaluated in reading comprehension, spelling, word recognition and metatextual awareness. The intervention program was performed with 103 students, divided into experimental (EG) and control groups (CG). The experimental group attended 10 sessions, which included the use of gradual Cloze technique in texts of various textual genres, which were intended to develop the reading comprehension and the development of metatextual awareness. Analyses indicated the superiority of EG over the CG in the post-test. New studies are needed to permit the generalization of the results.

Resumo: A importância da linguagem e de seu ensino formal durante a fase escolar inicial tem motivado estudos que procuram alternativas para implementá-las com sucesso. Sob essa perspectiva, o presente estudo objetivou verificar os efeitos de um programa de intervenção sobre as habilidades linguísticas avaliadas. Os participantes foram alunos do 6o ano do ensino fundamental, avaliados quanto à compreensão de leitura, à grafia, ao reconhecimento de palavras e à consciência metatextual. Foi realizado um programa de intervenção com 103 deles, separados em grupo experimental (GE) e de controle (GC). O grupo experimental participou de 10 sessões, usando a técnica de Cloze gradual em textos de gêneros textuais diversos, por meio dos quais pretendeu-se, além do desenvolvimento da compreensão de leitura, também o desenvolvimento da consciência metatextual. As análises indicaram superioridade do GE sobre o GC no pós-teste. Sugere-se a realização de novos estudos para permitir a generalização dos resultados.

Resumen: La importancia del lenguaje y de su enseñanza formal durante la fase escolar inicial ha motivado estudios que buscan alternativas para implementarlas con éxito. Bajo esa perspectiva, este estudio tuvo como objetivo verificar los efectos de un programa de intervención en las habilidades lingüísticas evaluadas. Participaron estudiantes del sexto grado de la escuela primaria, evaluados respecto a la comprensión de lectura, la grafía, el reconocimiento de palabras y la consciencia metatextual. Se llevó a cabo un programa de intervención con 103 de ellos, divididos en grupos experimentales y de control. Los grupos experimentales participaron de 10 sesiones, que incluyeron el uso de la técnica de Cloze gradual en textos de géneros textuales diversos, con los que se pretendió, además del desarrollo de la comprensión lectora, también el desarrollo de la consciencia metatextual. Los análisis indicaron la superioridad del GE en comparación con el GC en el post-test. Se sugiere llevar a cabo nuevos estudios para permitir la generalización de los resultados.

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No presente estudo foi investigada a pertinência do Modelo Simples de leitura para explicar a compreensão leitora no português do Brasil em crianças do Ensino fundamental. Participaram desta pesquisa 50 crianças, estudantes do 2º e 4º anos do ensino fundamental de uma escola pública, sendo 23 do 2º ano com idade entre 7 a 9 anos e 27 do 4º ano, com idade entre 9 a 13 anos. Na pesquisa, foram aplicados o Teste de Desempenho Escolar, o Teste de Cloze e de Compreensão de Leitura da PROLEC, leitura de palavras, decisão lexical, leitura de pseudopalavras e de compreensão oral, ambos subtestes da PROLEC. O resultado das correlações e regressões lineares mostraram a importância dos dois componentes do modelo: compreensão oral e reconhecimento de palavras para compreensão de leitura e que estes, contribuem também de forma independentes para a compreensão de leitura. (AU)

The pertinence of the Simple View was investigated in this study in order to explain reading comprehension in Brazilian Portuguese amongst children attending Elementary education. Fifty children look part in the study, students of years 2 and 4 of elementary education from a state school, 23 of which were from year 2, aged between 7 and 9 and 27 from year 4, aged between 9 and 13. During the course of the research conducted, the following tests were applied: the School Performance Test (TDE), the PROLEC, a Cloze test, and Reading Comprehension test, word reading, lexical decision, pseudo-word reading and oral comprehension, subtests from PROLEC. In short, the result of the correlations and linear regressions showed the importance components of the model, oral comprehension and word recognition as well as the fact that these independently contribute to reading comprehension. (AU)

En este estudio se investigó la pertinencia del modelo simple para explicar la comprensión lectora en portugués de Brasil entre niños del Ensino fundamental, o Educación primaria. 50 niños participaron del estudio, estudiantes de 2º y 4º de primaria de una escuela pública, 23 de los cuales eran de 2º, con edades comprendidas entre 7 y 9 y 27 de 4º, con edades entre 9 y 13. En el estudio se aplicó el test de desempeño escolar, el Test de Cloze y de Comprensión Lectora de PROLEC, lectura de palabras, decisión léxica, lectura de pseudopalabras y comprensión oral, ambos subtestes de PROLEC. En definitiva, el resultado de las correlaciones y regresiones lineares demostró la importancia de los dos componentes del modelo, lectura de palabras y comprensión oral además de que estos contribuyen independientemente hacia la comprensión lectora. (AU)

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The present study investigated effects of phonological and orthographic neighborhood density on event-related potentials, with an aim to better specify the factors that determine N400 amplitude in single word reading paradigms. We orthogonally manipulated the number of orthographic and phonological neighbors of words using the Levenshtein Distance metric (OLD20 and PLD20, respectively). The results showed opposite effects of phonological neighborhood density (PND) as a function of orthographic neighborhood density (OND). Larger N400 amplitudes were elicited by words with high PND compared with low PND when OND was high, and smaller N400 amplitudes were observed with high PND compared with low PND words when OND was low. We interpret these findings using the notion of cross-code consistency, according to which the compatibility of orthographic and phonological representations activated by a given word influences the process of recognizing that word. Words with similar numbers of orthographic and phonological neighbors have more consistent spellings and pronunciations across the neighborhood, and generate larger N400 amplitudes.

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The current study provides specificity data on a large sample (n = 115) of young to middle-aged, male, monolingual Spanish speakers of lower educational level and low acculturation to mainstream US culture for four neurocognitive performance validity tests (PVTs): the Dot Counting, the b Test, Rey Word Recognition, and Rey 15-Item Plus Recognition. Individuals with 0 to 6 years of education performed more poorly than did participants with 7 to 10 years of education on several Rey 15-Item scores (combination equation, recall intrusion errors, and recognition false positives), Rey Word Recognition total correct, and E-score and omission errors on the b Test, but no effect of educational level was observed for Dot Counting Test scores. Cutoff scores are provided that maintain approximately 90% specificity for the education subgroups separately. Some of these cutoffs match, or are even more stringent than, those recommended for use in US test takers who are primarily Caucasian, are tested in English, and have a higher educational level (i.e., Rey Word Recognition correct false-positive errors; Rey 15-Item recall intrusions and recognition false-positive errors; b Test total time; and Dot Counting E-score and grouped dot counting time). Thus, performance on these PVT variables in particular appears relatively robust to cultural/language/educational factors.

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RESUMEN

Se analizan los componentes básicos para la adquisición de la lectura en castellano mediante la aplicación del modelo logístico lineal de Fisher (Linear Logistic Test Model [LLTM]). Participaron en el estudio 245 niños y niñas de edades comprendidas entre los 4 y los 9 años a los que se administró una extensa batería diseñada para evaluar distintos procesos básicos para la lectura (PROBALES). Se aplicaron técnicas de análisis factorial para seleccionar un subconjunto de ítems que mostrasen ajuste al modelo de Rasch. El LLTM permitió confirmar la validez del modelo teórico según el cual el aprendizaje de la lectura descansa en el desarrollo de tres habilidades básicas: reconocimiento de palabras, conciencia fonológica y comprensión de la lectura. Se muestra la capacidad predictiva del modelo mediante análisis discriminante, y se constata que se clasificó correctamente en su curso escolar al 68% de los participantes.

The basic components for the acquisition of reading in Spanish are analyzed by using the Fisher Linear Logistic Test Model (LLTM). An extensive battery designed to assess different Basic Processes for Reading (PROBALES, acronym in Spanish) was applied to 245 children aged 4 to 9. Factor analysis techniques were used to select a subset of items that would adjust to the Rasch model. The LLTM confirmed the validity of the theoretical model which states that reading acquisition relies on the development of three basic skills: word recognition, phonological awareness, and reading comprehension. The theoretical model's predictive ability is shown by discriminant analysis, thereby confirming that 68% of participants were correctly classified in their school grade.

RESUMEN

Reading speed and efficiency are achieved through the automatic recognition of written words. Difficulties in learning and recognizing the orthography of words can arise despite reiterative exposure to texts. This study aimed to investigate, in native Spanish-speaking late adolescents, how different levels of orthographic knowledge might result in behavioral and event-related brain potential differences during the recognition of orthographic errors. Forty-five healthy high school students were selected and divided into 3 equal groups (High, Medium, Low) according to their performance on a 5-test battery of orthographic knowledge. All participants performed an orthographic recognition task consisting of the sequential presentation of a picture (object, fruit, or animal) followed by a correctly, or incorrectly, written word (orthographic mismatch) that named the picture just shown. Electroencephalogram (EEG) recording took place simultaneously. Behavioral results showed that the Low group had a significantly lower number of correct responses and increased reaction times while processing orthographical errors. Tests showed significant positive correlations between higher performance on the experimental task and faster and more accurate reading. The P150 and P450 components showed higher voltages in the High group when processing orthographic errors, whereas N170 seemed less lateralized to the left hemisphere in the lower orthographic performers. Also, trials with orthographic errors elicited a frontal P450 component that was only evident in the High group. The present results show that higher levels of orthographic knowledge correlate with high reading performance, likely because of faster and more accurate perceptual processing, better visual orthographic representations, and top-down supervision, as the event-related brain potential findings seem to suggest.

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