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Standing long jump is known as one of the important skills in the success of athletes in most sports. In addition, one of the most effective factors that can affect standing long jump distance and kinematics is the focus of attention used by the athlete. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to compare the effect of internal, external, and holistic focus of attention instructions on standing long jump performance and kinematics. The participants were 30 novices (all males; mean age = 21.70 ± 2.21 years; mean height = 175.73 ± 6.09 cm; and mean weight = 73.76 ± 11.77 kg) who performed 12 standing long jumps in four focus of attention conditions. Internal focus, external focus, holistic focus, and control conditions were implemented in a counterbalanced order. Jump distance and maximum knee flexion angle before take-off were recorded in all trials. The results showed that in relation to the standing long jump performance, the distance was similar in external and holistic focus conditions, and both were superior to internal or control conditions. There was no difference between control and internal focus of attention conditions. The results related to movement kinematics, however, did not report a difference between the maximum flexion angles before take-off. This study replicates the benefits of external and holistic focus instructions for jump distance, but this difference was not a product of different maximum knee flexion angles. It is suggested that coaches implement external and/or holistic focus cues to maximize athlete performance in jumping tasks.

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Background: The acquisition of motor skills is a key element in many sports. A motor learning principle, which is frequently used to support skill acquisition is the application of different attentional foci. The effectiveness of different attentional foci on performance and the learning of motor skills has been investigated in various sports using randomised controlled trials. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of different attentional foci (such as external (EFA) and internal attentional foci (IFA), but also holistic and switching foci) on the performance and learning of a sport-specific motor task in healthy individuals. Methods: This study was a systematic review with network meta-analysis. We followed the Prisma reporting guideline and the Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews. Cinahl, Embase, Medline and Cochrane Central were searched for eligible studies. Network meta-analyses were performed for the post-acquisition, retention and transfer test endpoints. Results: Twelve studies were included in the review. At post-acquisition an EFA was the most effective intervention compared to the control intervention (SMD: 0.9855; 95% CI [0.4-1.57]; p: 0.001). At the retention and transfer test endpoints, a holistic focus of attention had the highest effectiveness compared to an IFA (SMD 0.75; 95% CI [-0.1 to 1.6]; p: 0.09) and (SMD 1.16; 95% CI [0.47-1.86]; p: 0.001). Discussion: For all three endpoints, we analysed a greater effectiveness of an EFA and holistic focus compared to an IFA. Several promising different attentional focus interventions were identified. The largest effects were analysed for a holistic focus. However, only one study used this intervention and therefore there remains uncertainty about the effectiveness. With regard to the inconsistency observed, the analysis at post-acquisition should be interpreted with caution. Modified versions of the EFA were the imagined and the dynamic EFA. Both were only explored in single studies and should therefore be investigated in further follow-up studies that directly compare them.

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The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of attentional focus instructions on acute changes in the transverse relaxation time (T2) of the femorotibial cartilage and in cartilage volume during repeated drop-jump landings. Ten healthy females (Mage = 20.4 ± 0.8 years) performed a drop landing task from a 50 cm high box over the course of 3 days (50 repetitions each day) across three attentional focus conditions: external focus (EF: focus on landing as soft as possible), internal focus (IF: focus on bending your knees when you land), and control (CON: no-focus instruction), which was counterbalanced across focus conditions. T2 mapping and the volume of femorotibial cartilage were determined from magnetic resonance imaging scans at 1.5 T for the dominant knee before and after completing the drop landings in each attentional focus condition per day. Results indicated a smaller change in cartilage T2 relaxation time and volumetry in the central load-bearing lateral cartilage under the EF, compared to IF and CON. Moreover, the change in T2 and cartilage volume was greater for lateral tibial cartilage as compared to femoral cartilage and was independent of attentional focus instructions. No significant acute quantitative changes were observed in the medial compartment. The peak vertical ground reaction force was found to be the lowest under the EF, compared to IF and CON. These findings suggest that external focus of attention may reduce cartilage load, potentially aiding in the control or management of cartilage injuries during landing in female athletes.

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Previous studies have suggested an association between conscious movement investment and inhibiting motor actions. However, no within-designs were used in which conscious movement investment was manipulated. The current study compared changes in inhibition after instruction interventions that aimed to expand and limit conscious investment in the execution of a golf putting task. During a baseline and post-intervention test, participants were asked to putt balls in a hole. Randomly, an auditory stop-signal appeared 50 ms after reaching the end of backswing on some trials, signalling them to stop the downswing as quickly as possible. Between the two tests, the participants practiced under different instructions, without the stop-signal. One group (i.e., expanded conscious investment, ECIG) received multiple explicit movement-related instructions along with the internal focus of attention instructions, while the second group (i.e., limited conscious investment, LCIG) received a single analogy instruction paired with external focus of attention instructions. The results did not reveal significant differences in stopping rate and stopping time between the baseline and post-intervention tests and the two groups. However, a mediation analysis highlighted that the ECIG exhibited a greater change in downswing time compared to the LCIG. This change was correlated with a larger increase in stopping rate and stopping time. We conclude that conscious movement investment did not directly influence inhibition. Instead, we discuss how conscious movement investment may indirectly influence inhibition dependent on the putting kinematics.

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The aim was to examine the effect of focus of attention cues on foot angle for retraining movement purposes. Twenty (females: 8) rearfoot-striking recreational runners (mass: 72.5 ± 11.8 kg; height: 1.73 ± 0.09 m; age: 32.9 ± 11.3 years) were randomly assigned to an internal focus (IF) (n = 10) or external focus (EF) (n = 10) verbal cue group. Participants performed 5 × 6 minute blocks of treadmill running (control run, 3 × cued running, retention run) at a self-selected running velocity (9.4 ± 1.1 km∙h-1) during a single laboratory visit. Touchdown foot angle, mechanical efficiency, internal and external work were calculated and, centre of mass (COM) and foot movement smoothness was quantified. Linear-mixed effect models showed an interaction for foot angle (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.35) and mechanical efficiency (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.40) when comparing the control to the cued running. Only the IF group reduced foot angle and mechanical efficiency during cued running, but not during the retention run. The IF group produced less external work during the 1st cued run than the control run. COM and foot smoothness were unaffected by cueing. Only an IF produced desired technique changes but at the cost of reduced mechanical efficiency. Movement smoothness was unaffected by cue provision. Changes to foot angle can be achieved within 6 minutes of gait retraining.

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When one directs their attention to an intended effect (external focus of attention, EFOA), motor performance is generally better than when one directs their attention to their own body movements (internal focus of attention, IFOA). However, the effect of attentional focus is unclear when a skill is practiced through motor imagery (MI) in the absence of physical trials. Participants (N = 30, M = 22.33 yrs, SD = 2.69) in the present study completed three physical trials of a reciprocal aiming task before and (24-h) after MI practice. During MI practice, the EFOA (n = 15) and IFOA (n = 15) groups mentally practiced the task with no physical practice with EFOA-MI or IFOA-MI, respectively, for three consecutive days. Our results showed that both groups significantly improved in accuracy (F1,28 = 6.49, p = .017), supporting the benefit of MI in motor skill acquisition. However, a significant effect of attentional focus was not observed (F1.,28 = 0.445, p = 0.51). We discussed two potential explanations: EFOA/IFOA requires physical trials to affect performance, or individuals must use both EFOA and IFOA in the process of creating imagery of the environment and movements, which may obscure the effect of EFOA and IFOA.

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The association between low back pain and lumbar spine local dynamic stability (LDS) appears to be modulated by if and how someone catastrophizes about pain, suggesting that the cognitive perceptions of pain may influence an individual's ability to control lumbar spine motion. Previous work also demonstrates that directing cognitive resources and attentional focus can influence movement performance. Therefore, we aimed to examine whether distracting attentional focus would influence lumbar spine LDS during repetitive flexion-extension movements. Sixteen participants performed repetitive spine flexion-extension movements under two baseline conditions (pre- and post-), and while attentional focus was distracted by either an external sensory stimulus or a cognitive-motor dual-task, both targeted at the hands. Lumbar spine LDS was examined over 30 continuous movement repetitions using maximum Lyapunov exponents. In comparison to both Baseline and Post-Baseline trials, the perceived mental workload was significantly elevated during the cognitive-motor dual-task trial but not the external sensory stimulus trial. The only statistically significant effect on LDS occurred in the Post-Baseline trial, where LDS was higher than in the cognitive-motor dual-task. In combination with previous work, these findings suggest that distracting attentional focus during repetitive lumbar spine flexion-extension movements does not have a negative influence on lumbar spine LDS.

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Research has highlighted the need for training lifeguards in psychosocial skills. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the effectiveness of a short 10-h training program encompassing dimensions associated with emotional management, focus of attention, interpersonal relationships, and lifeguard behavior, and its effects on their psychosocial skills. A total of 64 lifeguards with experience ranging from 1 to 25 years (M = 5.93, SD = 6.07), randomly divided into experimental and control groups, participated in this study. The d2 Test of Attention, the Social Intelligence Test of O'Sullivan and Guilford, and the MSCEIT Emotional Intelligence Test were used to assess psychosocial skills. A multivariate analysis of variance for repeated measures (2 × 3 (Group × Time) MANOVA) was performed to analyze the effects of the training program on psychosocial skills. The results revealed that the experimental group showed statistically significant improvements in focus of attention and emotional intelligence compared to the control group. However, it is worth noting that no statistically significant group interactions were observed for measures of social intelligence. Taken together, these results seem to highlight the importance of including psychosocial content in the general training of lifeguards.

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Motor dysfunction is increasingly being viewed as a core characteristic of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children. In particular, children with ASD have difficulty in learning new motor skills and there is a need to develop effective methods to improve this. Previous research has found that children with ASD may retain the ability to implicitly learn motor skills in comparison to their explicit learning of motor skills, which is typically impaired. This literature mini review focuses on summarizing the study of implicit learning in the acquisition of motor skills in children with ASD. First, we briefly introduce several common implicit learning methods in children's motor skill learning. Second, we focus on the role of two important implicit learning approaches in motor skill learning, namely, an external focus of attention and analogy learning. Finally, based on our review of the existing studies, we present an outlook for future research and the areas that need to be improved in the practical teaching of implicit learning in the acquisition of motor skills in children with ASD.

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The intensity that people choose for their endurance activities has a major influence on their affective experience. Furthermore, the direction of attention (e.g., internal or external) during endurance activities may significantly influence performance and personal perceptions. Therefore, in the current study, we focus on the interaction between intensity and attentional focus. We aim to address the question of whether adopting an internal (IAF; breathing) or an external attentional focus (EAF; environment), compared to a control condition, leads in differences in speed, heart rate, and affect during running at different intensities in experienced runners. Data from 59 participants were analyzed (Mage: 26.95 (SD = 4.78) years; 34 male; 25 female). Participants ran 9 × 3 min in an outdoor park with three intensity conditions (light, somewhat hard, hard) and three attention conditions (internal, external, control). Intensity, but not attentional focus, impacted affective responses. Results revealed a significant interaction between attentional focus and intensity on heart rate (p < 0.001, ω2p = 0.199): during the somewhat hard intensity, the control focus condition was significantly lower compared the internal and external attentional focus conditions. Additionally, we used exploratory multilevel models (MLM). In the best-fitting MLM of heart rate, 45% of the variance is attributed to differences between athletes, and thus 55% of the variance within athletes. Furthermore, the model indicated that athletes running at a somewhat hard intensity and maintaining an EAF (b = 7.69) or IAF (b = 6.36) had an increase in heart rate compared to the control condition. We speculate that simultaneously monitoring effort and following an attentional instruction was such a difficult task that led to a favorable effect for the control condition. In practice, this could mean that the implementation of an unfamiliar focus of attention, for example, initially requires additional energy expenditure.

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Although attentional focus affects motor performance, whether corticospinal excitability and intracortical modulations differ between focus strategies depending on the exercise patterns remains unclear. In the present study, using single- and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation and peripheral nerve stimulation, we demonstrated changes in the cortical and spinal excitability under external focus (EF) and internal focus (IF) conditions with dynamic or static exercise. Participants performed the ramp-and-hold contraction task of right index finger abduction against an object (sponge or wood) with both exercises. They were asked to concentrate on the pressure on the sponge/wood induced by finger abduction under the EF condition, and on the index finger itself under the IF condition. Motor-evoked potential (MEP) and F-wave in the premotor, phasic, or tonic phase, and short- and long-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI and LICI, respectively), and intracortical facilitation (ICF) in the premotor phase were examined by recording surface electromyographic activity in the right first dorsal interosseous muscle. Increments in the MEP amplitude were larger under the EF condition than under the IF condition in the dynamic, but not static, exercise. The F-wave, SICI, and LICI did not differ between focus conditions in both exercises. In the dynamic exercise, interestingly, ICF was greater under the EF condition than under the IF condition and positively correlated with the MEP amplitude. These results indicate that corticospinal excitability and intracortical modulations to attentional focus differ depending on exercise patterns, suggesting that attentional focus differentially affects the central nervous system responsible for diverse motor behaviors.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We investigated attentional focus-dependent corticospinal and intracortical modulations in dynamic or static exercise. The corticospinal excitability was modulated differentially depending on the focus of attention during dynamic, but not static exercise. Although the reduction of intracortical GABAergic inhibition was comparable between focus conditions in both exercises, intracortical facilitation was smaller when focusing on the internal environments in the dynamic exercise, resulting in lower activation of the corticospinal tract.

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Previous research on the use of peripheral vision to identify two spatially separated stimuli simultaneously has led to the conclusion that the focus of attention has the form of a symmetric ellipse with a broader expansion along the horizontal compared to the vertical meridian. However, research on pseudoneglect has indicated that attention is not symmetrically distributed to the whole visual field. Here, we test if the attention window is indeed symmetrical with regard to its shape and resolution during peripheral vision. The results indicate that the position of those stimuli relative to the focus of attention influences the ability to identify a given set of stimuli. Specifically, stimuli presented to the left and top of the fixation point were more frequently identified correctly compared to those presented to the right bottom. That is, the attention window is rather not symmetric, which must be considered in future studies on the nature of the focus of attention.

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OBJECTIVES: According to the Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning (OPTIMAL) theory of Wulf and Lewthwaite, enhanced expectancies (EE), autonomy support (AS), and an external focus (EF) of attention facilitate motor performance and learning. The present study examined whether consecutive implementation of EE, AS, and EF during practice would enhance the learning of a square-stepping task in older adults. METHODS: Participants were randomly assigned to optimized and control groups. After the pretest, 1 of the 3 factors was implemented during each of the three 12-trial practice blocks, in a counterbalanced order, in the optimized group: positive feedback (EE), choice of mat color (AS), and instructions to focus on the squares (EF). Control group participants practiced without any of these factors. RESULTS: Results indicated that the optimized group had faster movement times than the control group during the practice phase and on 24-hr retention and transfer tests. DISCUSSION: The key variables in the OPTIMAL theory can be applied sequentially in order to facilitate motor performance and learning in older adults.

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Internal focus has been shown to be detrimental to performance by disrupting the motor system, whereas external focus enhances performance by promoting automaticity. One hypothesis, which explains the underlying mechanism of the disruption of the motor system, proposes that internal focus affects the type of thoughts (explicit rules) by invoking self-conscious, evaluative thoughts (McKay et al., 2015). In contrast, another hypothesis proposes that internal focus increases the number of explicit rules, loading working memory (Poolton et al., 2006). To examine the competing hypotheses, neurotypical young adults (22.98 ± 4.46 years old, n = 20 males, n = 40 females) were assigned to one of three groups: external focus (n = 20), internal focus (n = 20), and control (n = 20) groups, and practiced a reciprocal aiming task for two days with retention/transfer tests. Between trials, participant's thoughts were evaluated by an open-ended questionnaire. The type of explicit rules was analyzed using a chi-square test, and the number of explicit rules was analyzed using a mixed-effect Poisson regression. The results showed that external focus resulted in a greater proportion of explicit rules about the task and a lesser proportion of self-evaluative thoughts. The number of explicit rules did not differ between groups. Our results suggest that external focus may strengthen focus on task-relevant features, while internal focus moves people's attention away from important features, potentially explaining why the motor system is disrupted by internal focus.

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[Purpose] This study aimed to examine the immediate effects of verbal instructions with an internal and external focus of attention on forward reach movement while standing. [Participants and Methods] Thirty-seven healthy young males performed reach movement in three conditions: control, internal focus of attention, and external focus of attention. The measurements recorded were the movement distance of the third metacarpal bone (reach distance), the distance of the center of pressure, and the movement angles between the acromion and malleolus lateralis and between the acromion and trochanter major. [Results] Compared to the control condition, the internal focus of attention condition had a lower reach distance, angles between the acromion and malleolus lateralis and between the acromion and trochanter major, and center of pressure distance. In contrast, compared to the control condition, the external focus of attention condition showed higher reach distance and angles between the acromion and malleolus lateralis and between the acromion and trochanter major. The change rate of reach distance in the internal and external focus of attention conditions correlated significantly with the change rates of the angles between the acromion and malleolus lateralis and between the acromion and trochanter major. [Conclusion] Verbal instructions with attentional focus resulted in the simultaneous adjustment of the positional relationship between trunk and hip and immediately affected the reach distance. Our findings suggest that verbal instruction with attentional focus is an important factor affecting reach movement.

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OBJECTIVE: The aim: To investigate the prevalence of computer games among student athletes and the impact of computer game addiction on their lifestyle and cognitive functions. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Materials and methods: 125 students (age 17 to 26) took part in the study. Students were divided into groups: e-sportsmen (12 people), who have played for an average of 4,592 hours; athletes of various sports (31 people), who are fond of computer games; athletes (82 people), who do not play computer games. A lifestyle questionnaire and attention research methods based on Landolt rings (E. Landolt) were used. RESULTS: Results: We did not set the task of finding reliable differences between groups, but to find out general tendencies. Athletes, who indicated, that they are fond of computer games, show a lower level of weekly motoric activity compared to athletes, who are not fond of computer games. Cyber-sportsmen demonstrated insufficient physical activity in order to maintain physical fitness and a healthy lifestyle, 17% of cyber-sportsmen did not have any physical activity, that lasted for half an hour or more at any time of the week. Cyber-athletes showed a general tendency towards worsening of indicators of quality of life (sleep duration, insomnia, headaches), deterioration of attention, if compared to the athletes of other sports. CONCLUSION: Conclusions: Studies have shown that students, who combine computer games with a sufficient amount of motoric activity, have a tendency to better con-centration of attention. Studies of the necessary parameters of motoric activity and the alternation of mental, physical activity and rest for e-athletes should be prospective.

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BACKGROUND: The present research aims to investigate the effectiveness of virtual reality exposure therapy on the focus of attention, self-criticism, and interpretation bias among university students with social anxiety. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The present research was conducted using quasi-experimental research with pre-test and post-test control group design. The participants were university students aged between 10 and 30 years old who had visited Isfahan counseling centers in 1399 HS. Among 53 patients referred to the counseling centers, 30 were randomly selected by convenience sampling and then assigned to an experimental group (15 individuals) and a control group (15 individuals). The experimental group received eight sessions of 30-minute and face-to-face virtual reality-based interventions. In contrast, the control group remained on the waiting list. A structured clinical interview and Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN) were used to select and screen students, and the Focus of Attention Questionnaire (FAQ), Levels of Self-Criticism Scale (LOSC), and revised interpretation bias inventory were applied for the pre-test and the post-test. Then, all the data were analyzed by a statistical analysis of covariance. RESULTS: The results showed that virtual reality exposure therapy significantly reduces the symptoms of the focus of attention, self-criticism, and interpretation bias in the experimental group compared to the control group. (P < 0/01). CONCLUSION: The research showed that virtual reality exposure therapy reduced the symptoms of social anxiety. Therefore, this method can be applied to reduce some symptoms of social anxiety in university students.

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Background: Given the demands posed by excessive practice quantities in modern dance, physical and mental health can be compromised. Therefore, there is a need to consider how quality of practice may be improved and possibly even reduce training times. Sports literature has shown that instructions and feedback given by coaches can have an effect on the quality of training and influence self-regulation and the performance of athletes. However, currently little is known about the use of instructions and feedback by dance teachers. The aim of the current study was, therefore, to examine the type of instructions and feedback given by dance teachers during various dance classes. Methods: A total of six dance teachers participated in this study. Video and audio recordings were made of six dance classes and two rehearsals at a contemporary dance university. The dance teacher's coaching behavior was analyzed using the modified Coach Analysis and Intervention System (CAIS). Additionally, feedback and instructions were also examined in terms of their corresponding focus of attention. Absolute numbers, as well as times per minute (TPM) rates were calculated for each behavior before, during, and after an exercise. Absolute numbers were also used to calculate ratios of positive-negative feedback and open-closed questions. Results: Most feedback comments were given after an exercise (472 out of 986 total observed behaviors). Improvisation had the highest positive-negative feedback ratio (29) and open-closed questions ratio (1.56). Out of the focus of attention comments, internal focus of attention comments were used most frequently (572 out of 900). Discussion/conclusion: The results make clear that there is a large variability in instructions and feedback over teachers and classes. Overall, there is room for improvement toward a higher positive-negative feedback ratio, a higher open-closed question ratio and producing more comments eliciting an external focus of attention.

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Priority-based allocation of attentional resources has shown robust effects in working memory (WM) with both cue-based and reward-based prioritization. However, direct comparisons between these effects in WM are needed. Additionally, the consequences of WM prioritization for remembering in the long term remain unclear for both prioritization procedures. Here, we tested and compared the immediate and long-term memory (LTM) effects of cue-based versus reward-based retrospective prioritization of WM content. Participants encoded four memory items and were then indicated to prioritize one of the items through the presentation of either a retro-cue or a reward pattern. We then tested their immediate and delayed memory. The results of the first experiment showed better memory for prioritized than for unprioritized information in WM and LTM, but the WM effect was driven solely by the retro-cue, making it difficult to interpret any reward-based effects in LTM. In the second experiment, using a more explicit and meaningful reward-based manipulation, the results showed a prioritization benefit in WM for both prioritization procedures. In LTM, however, the prioritization effect was predominantly driven by the retro-cue manipulation. Taken together, we found that (1) the way in which attention is directed in WM impacts the size of the prioritization benefit in WM, (2) WM prioritization generally results in a prioritization effect in LTM, and (3) that the effect in LTM is more robust for cue-based prioritization. Exploratory analyses indicated that the LTM effect of cue-based prioritization reflected a cost in performance for noncued items rather than a benefit for cued items.

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Attention can be defined as a mechanism for the selection and prioritization of elements among many. When attention is directed to a specific piece of information, this information is assumed to be in the focus of attention. On a day-to-day basis, we need to rely on efficient switching between information we are holding in working memory (internal modality) and information presented in the world around us (external modality). A recent set of studies investigated between-modality attentional switches and found that there is an asymmetrical switch cost for switching between the internal and external focus of attention (Verschooren et al., 2020, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 46[9], 912-925; Verschooren, Liefooghe, et al., 2019a, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 45[10], 1399-1414). In particular, participants switched on a trial-by-trial basis between an internal task using stimuli retrieved from memory and an external task using on-screen presented stimuli. A larger cost was found when switching from the external modality towards the internal modality than the other way around. The authors found that this cost asymmetry could be best explained in terms of associative interference (i.e., differences in shielding efficiency against the memory traces from the competing task set). The present study aimed to replicate the asymmetrical switch cost (Experiment 1) and investigate whether an alternative explanation in terms of stimulus strength can account for the asymmetrical switch cost (Experiment 2). Overall, the results confirm the presence of a subtle, asymmetrical switch cost, but we observed little to no contribution of stimulus strength.

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