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Interventional cardiology is on the cusp of a significant transformation as we approach 2050, driven by emerging trends and groundbreaking technological innovations. This mini review explores the pivotal developments shaping the field, focusing on three key areas: Emerging Trends in Interventional Cardiology, Technological Innovations: The Next Frontier, and the Future Era of Intervention Cardiology from 2024 to 2050. Emerging trends, including advancements in imaging and artificial intelligence, are revolutionizing diagnosis and treatment, allowing for more precise and personalized interventions. Technological innovations, such as robotic-assisted procedures and bioresorbable stents, are redefining the landscape, enhancing procedural accuracy, and expanding access to care through remote interventions. Looking ahead to 2050, we anticipate a future where interventional cardiology is increasingly driven by minimally invasive techniques, AI-driven decision-making, and personalized medicine, offering unprecedented improvements in patient outcomes and reshaping the way cardiovascular diseases are managed.

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BACKGROUND: With the development of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), the number of interventional procedures without implantation, such as bioresorbable stents (BRS) and drug-coated balloons, has increased annually. Metal drug-eluting stent unloading is one of the most common clinical complications. Comparatively, BRS detachment is more concealed and harmful, but has yet to be reported in clinical research. In this study, we report a case of BRS unloading and successful rescue. CASE SUMMARY: This is a case of a 59-year-old male with the following medical history: "Type 2 diabetes mellitus" for 2 years, maintained with metformin extended-release tablets, 1 g PO BID; "hypertension" for 20 years, with long-term use of metoprolol sustained-release tablets, 47.5 mg PO QD; "hyperlipidemia" for 20 years, without regular medication. He was admitted to the emergency department of our hospital due to intermittent chest pain lasting 18 hours, on February 20, 2022 at 15: 35. Electrocardiogram results showed sinus rhythm, ST-segment elevation in leads I and avL, and poor R-wave progression in leads V1-3. High-sensitivity troponin I level was 4.59 ng/mL, indicating an acute high lateral wall myocardial infarction. The patient's family requested treatment with BRS, without implantation. During PCI, the BRS became unloaded but was successfully rescued. The patient was followed up for 2 years; he had no episodes of angina pectoris and was in generally good condition. CONCLUSION: We describe a case of a 59-year-old male experienced BRS unloading and successful rescue. By analyzing images, the causes of BRS unloading and the treatment plan are discussed to provide insights for BRS release operations. We discuss preventive measures for BRS unloading.

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Percutaneous coronary intervention, a common treatment for atherosclerotic coronary artery lesions, occasionally results in perforations associated with increased mortality rates. Stents coated with a bioresorbable polymer membrane may offer an effective solution for sealing coronary artery perforations. Additionally, such coatings could be effective in mitigating neointimal hyperplasia within the vascular lumen and correcting symptomatic aneurysms. This study examines polymer membranes fabricated by electrospinning of polycaprolactone, polydioxanone, polylactide-co-caprolactone, and polylactide-co-glycolide. In uniaxial tensile tests, all the materials appear to surpass theoretically derived elongation thresholds necessary for stent deployment, albeit polydioxanone membranes are found to disintegrate during the experimental balloon expansion. As revealed by in vitro hemocompatibility testing, polylactide-co-caprolactone membranes exhibit higher thrombogenicity compared to other evaluated polymers, while polylactide-co-glycolide samples fail within the first day post-implantation into the abdominal aorta in rats. The PCL membrane exhibited significant water leakage in the permeability test. Comprehensive evaluation of mechanical testing, bio- and hemocompatibility, as well as biodegradation dynamics shows the advantage of membranes based on and the mixture of polylactide-co-caprolactone and polydioxanone over other polymer groups. These findings lay a foundational framework for conducting preclinical studies on stent configurations in large laboratory animals, emphasizing that further investigations under conditions closely mimicking clinical use are imperative for making definitive conclusions.

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INTRODUCTION: In our retrospective study we compared the outcomes of paediatric lateral condyle fractures of the elbow fixed by bioabsorbable pins and tension-band sutures or by metallic tension-band with K-wires. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We reviewed the data of children operated on for lateral condyle fractures between 2010 and 2020. Patients were classified as follows: 1. fractures treated with metallic (KW group), 2. fractures treated with resorbable implants (BR group). We compared the distribution of age, sex and fracture type in each group. Operative times of the two techniques were also recorded and compared. We analysed the X-rays taken one year after the injury and measured the following parameters: presence of possible non-union, varus or valgus deviation, lateral spur formation. Patients whose follow-up period was less than one year were excluded. For categorical data, group comparisons were performed with Chi-square test or Fisher's exact test, depending on the sample size. The evaluation of discrete variables was performed with Mann-Whitney U test. RESULTS: 42 patients met the above criteria. We found 19 children in the Kirschner -wire + tansion band wire (KW) group and 23 in the Bioresorbable pin + tension band suture (BR) group. There were no significant differences between the study groups in terms of age, sex, left-right ratio, number of complications, operation time, number of Jacobs II and III cases or follow-up time. The operation time was on average 5 min longer in the bioresorbable group (K-wire mean = 62.1 min, Bioresorbable mean = 67 min), this difference, however, is not statistically significant (P = 0.177). In terms of minor and major complications, there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups. (P = 0.729). CONCLUSIONS: We did not notice any difference between the complication rates of the two methods, so the real advantage of the absorbable implant technique is that no second intervention is necessary. The benefits of using biodegradable implants in various osteosynthesis techniques need further confirmation by randomised trials.

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The rise in additive manufacturing (AM) offers myriad opportunities for 3D-printed polymeric vascular scaffolds, such as customization and on-the-spot manufacturing, in vivo biodegradation, incorporation of drugs to prevent restenosis, and visibility under X-ray. To maximize these benefits, informed scaffold design is critical. Polymeric bioresorbable vascular scaffolds (BVS) must undergo significant deformation prior to implantation in a diameter-reduction process known as crimping which enables minimally invasive surgery. Understanding the behavior of vascular scaffolds in this step provides twofold benefits: first, it ensures the BVS is able to accommodate stresses occurring during this process to prevent failure, and further, it provides information on the radial strength of the BVS, a key metric to understanding its post-implant performance in the artery. To capitalize on the fast manufacturing speed AM provides, a low time cost solution for understanding scaffold performance during this step is necessary. Through simulation of the BVS crimping process in ABAQUS using experimentally obtained bulk material properties, we have developed a qualitative analysis tool which is capable of accurately comparing relative performance trends of varying BVS designs during crimping in a fraction of the time of experimental testing, thereby assisting in the integration of informed design into the additive manufacturing process.

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Background: The efficacy of bioresorbable vascular scaffolds (BVS) compared to metallic stents for the treatment of coronary heart disease remains controversial. The analysis of clinical outcomes at five years following the initial treatment has yet to be reviewed. This study sought to assess the five-year outcomes in randomized controlled trials of BVS in the treatment of coronary heart disease using a systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods: A systematic database search was conducted from their inception to June 30th, 2023 using various Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms including: "Coronary Disease", "Bioresorbable stent", "Randomized controlled trials". Results: After a rigorous selection process, a total of five high-quality articles were finally included in this study. Each trial demonstrated a low risk of bias. After 5 years, bioresorbable stents showed outcomes similar to conventional metal stents in terms of cardiac mortality. However, they were inferior in terms of lesion revascularization rates, in-stent thrombosis rates, target lesion failure, target vessel failure, and myocardial infarction. Conclusions: While bioresorbable stents are comparable to metallic stents in terms of cardiac mortality rates, they exhibit significant drawbacks that warrant clinical consideration.

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BACKGROUND: In patients with in-stent restenosis (ISR) bioresorbable vascular scaffolds (BVS) provide similar results to drug-coated balloons (DCBs) but are inferior to drug-eluting stents (DES) at 1 year. However, the long-term efficacy of BVS in these patients remains unknown. OBJECTIVES: This study sought to assess the long-term safety and efficacy of BVS in patients with ISR. METHODS: RIBS VI (Restenosis Intrastent: Bioresorbable Vascular Scaffolds Treatment; NCT02672878) and RIBS VI Scoring (Restenosis Intrastent: Bioresorbable Vascular Scaffolds Treatment With Scoring Balloon; NTC03069066) are prospective multicenter studies designed to evaluate the results of BVS in patients with ISR (N = 220). The inclusion and exclusion criteria were identical to those used in the RIBS IV (ISR of DES) (Restenosis Intra-stent of Drug-eluting Stents: Drug-eluting Balloon vs Everolimus-eluting Stent; NCT01239940) and RIBS V (ISR of bare-metal stents) (Restenosis Intra-stent of Bare Metal Stents: Paclitaxel-eluting Balloon vs Everolimus-eluting Stent; NCT01239953) randomized trials (including 249 ISR patients treated with DCBs and 249 ISR patients treated with DES). A prespecified comparison of the long-term results obtained with these treatment modalities (ie, DES, DCBs, and BVS) was performed. RESULTS: Clinical follow-up at 3 years was obtained in all (100%) 718 patients. The 3-year target lesion revascularization rate after BVS was 14.1% (vs 12.9% after DCBs [not significant], and 5.2% after DES [HR: 2.80; 95% CI: 1.47-5.36; P = 0.001]). In a landmark analysis (>1 year), the target lesion revascularization rate after BVS was higher than after DES (adjusted HR: 3.41; 95% CI: 1.15-10.08) and DCBs (adjusted HR: 3.33; 95% CI: 1.14-9.70). Very late vessel thrombosis was also more frequent with BVS (BVS: 1.8%, DCBs: 0.4%, DES: 0%; P = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: In patients with ISR, late clinical results of DES are superior to those obtained with DCBs and BVS. Beyond the first year, DCBs are safer and more effective than BVS.

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Background and Objectives: Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) of chronic total occlusion (CTO) is often associated with longer total stent length. Our aim was to evaluate the long-term safety and effectiveness of bioresorbable scaffold (BRS) implantation in CTO to avoid using a full metal jacket. Materials and Methods: We conducted a single-center prospective longitudinal case study including 34 patients who underwent PCI of CTO with at least one BRS and drug-eluting stent (DES) implantation (n = 27) or BRS-only at the Latvian Centre of Cardiology between 2016 and 2018. Quantitative coronary angiography (QCA) and intravascular ultrasound were performed during the index procedure and long-term follow-up. Results: Of 34 patients with a mean age of 60.6 ± 9.5 years, 76.5% were male. The most common CTO artery was the right coronary artery (73.5%, n = 25). The median length of occlusion was 23.0 mm (interquartile range (IQR) = 13.9-32.7), with a total mean BRS/DES length of 49.6 ± 20.4 mm. During the median follow-up of 5.6 years (IQR = 5.0-5.9), the primary endpoint of target vessel re-occlusion occurred in 5.9% (n = 2) of patients. Target lesion revascularization (TLR) was performed in 35.3% (n = 12) of patients, with a mean time to TLR of 62.5 (95% confidence interval (CI), 53.9-71.2) months. Through QCA, there was a statistically significant increase in median residual diameter stenosis (20.1-31.4%, p < 0.01) and residual length of stenosis (5.2-7.1%, p = 0.04) compared with the index procedure. Conclusions: Our study demonstrates that BRS is a safe and feasible option for PCI of CTO, allowing for the avoidance of long segment stenting and ensuring long-term patency of the coronary artery.

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Percutaneous coronary intervention is a critical treatment for coronary artery disease, particularly myocardial infarction, and is highly recommended in clinical guidelines. Traditional metallic stents, although initially effective, remain permanently in the artery and can lead to complications such as in-stent restenosis, late thrombosis, and chronic inflammation. Given the temporary need for stenting and the potential for late complications, bioresorbable stents have emerged as a promising alternative. However, bioresorbable polymeric stents have encountered significant clinical challenges due to their low mechanical strength and ductility, which increase the risks of thrombosis and local inflammation. Consequently, bioresorbable metals are being considered as a superior option for coronary stents. This review examines the progress of bioresorbable metallic stents from both preclinical and clinical perspectives, aiming to provide a theoretical foundation for future research. Iron, zinc, and magnesium are the primary materials used for these stents. Zinc-based bioresorbable stents have shown promise in preclinical studies due to their biocompatibility and vascular protective properties, although human clinical studies are still limited. Magnesium-based stents have demonstrated positive clinical outcomes, being fully absorbed within 12 months and showing low rates of late lumen loss and target lesion failure at 6- and 12-months post-implantation. Initial trials of iron-based stents have indicated favorable mid-term safety and efficacy, with complete absorption by the body within three years and consistent luminal expansion beyond six months post-implantation. Despite these advancements, further trials are needed for comprehensive validation. In conclusion, while current materials do not fully meet the ideal requirements, ongoing research should focus on developing bioresorbable stents with enhanced performance characteristics to better meet clinical needs.

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Implantable polymeric biodegradable devices, such as biodegradable vascular scaffolds, cannot be fully visualized using standard X-ray-based techniques, compromising their performance due to malposition after deployment. To address this challenge, we describe a new radiopaque and photocurable liquid polymer-ceramic composite (mPDC-MoS2) consisting of methacrylated poly(1,12 dodecamethylene citrate) (mPDC) and molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) nanosheets. The composite was used as an ink with microcontinuous liquid interface production (µCLIP) to fabricate bioresorbable vascular scaffolds (BVS). Prints exhibited excellent crimping and expansion mechanics without strut failures and, importantly, with X-ray visibility in air and muscle tissue. Notably, MoS2 nanosheets displayed physical degradation over time in phosphate-buffered saline solution, suggesting the potential for producing radiopaque, fully bioresorbable devices. mPDC-MoS2 is a promising bioresorbable X-ray-visible composite material suitable for 3D printing medical devices, such as vascular scaffolds, that require noninvasive X-ray-based monitoring techniques for implantation and evaluation. This innovative biomaterial composite system holds significant promise for the development of biocompatible, fluoroscopically visible medical implants, potentially enhancing patient outcomes and reducing medical complications.

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In the treatment of hand fractures, metal implants are often used to allow early range of motion and a stable fixation. Although they provide adequate bone union, metal implants have been known to cause joint stiffness, painful or prominent hardware, and adhesions, often leading to another surgery for hardware removal. Bioabsorbable implants have been shown to offer comparable results for fracture fixation in the hand while removing the complications seen with retained hardware. In this article, we review biomechanical and clinical studies focused on bioabsorbable implants made of polylactic acid used for orthopedic hand injuries in order to promote their continued use and future research.

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Motivated by the enormous potential of hydrogels in regenerative medicine, new biocompatible gelatin-based hybrid hydrogels were developed through a green process using poly(ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether as a cross-linking agent, adding carrageenan and chitosan polysaccharides to the network to better mimic the hybrid composition of native extracellular matrix. Overall, the hydrogels show suitable structural stability, high porosity and pore interconnectivity, good swellability, and finally, biocompatibility. Their mechanical behavior, investigated by tensile and compression tests, appears to be characterized by nonlinear elasticity with high compliance values, fast stress-relaxation, and good strain reversibility with no sign of mechanical failure for compressive loading-unloading cycles at relatively high deformation levels of 50%. Degradation tests confirm the hydrogel bioresorbability by gradual hydrolysis, during which the structural integrity of both materials is maintained, while their mechanical behavior becomes more and more compliant. Human Umbilical Cord-derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells (hUC-MSCs) were used to test the hydrogels as potential carriers for cell delivery in tissue engineering. hUC-MSCs cultured inside the hydrogels show a homogenous distribution and maintain their growth and viability for at least 21 days of culture, with an increasing proliferation trend. Hence, this study contributes to a further understanding of the potential use of hybrid hydrogels and hUC-MSCs for a wide range of biomedical applications, particularly in soft tissue engineering.

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PURPOSE: The purpose of the study is to evaluate the healing potential of a full-thickness tendon defect in the rotator cuff of rabbits using a bioabsorbable scaffold impregnated with bone marrow-mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) or rotator cuff-derived mesenchymal stem cells (RC-MSCs). METHODS: Sixteen adult rabbits were subjected to a full-thickness rotator cuff deficit. Rabbits were randomly assigned to four groups of four animals. In Group 0 (control), the deficit was left untreated. In Group 1, the deficit was treated with a single synthetic scaffold alone. In Group 2, the deficit was treated with the previous scaffold loaded with allogeneic BM-MSCs. In Group 3, the deficit was treated with the previous scaffold loaded with allogenic RC-MSCs. After animal sacrifice, tissue samples were subjected to histological and immunohistochemical analysis. RESULTS: Group 1 showed the highest mean tendon maturing score (15.3 ± 0.9) postoperatively, being significantly higher, in comparison to groups 0, 2 and 3 (p = 0.01, 0.02 and 0.01, respectively). Group 1 showed the highest mean collagen I/collagen III ratio (1.4 ± 0.8) postoperatively but without any statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: The utilization of MSCs in rotator cuff repair in a rabbit model has not been associated with an enhancement in tendon healing in 16 weeks postoperatively, in comparison to controls and bioabsorbable scaffolds. The addition of MSCs does not result in better rotator cuff healing. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Not applicable. This is an animal study.

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Background: Bioresorbable scaffolds (BRS) have been proposed as an alternative to drug-eluting stents (DES), offering radial support during the early phases of healing, while potentially reducing the risk of long-term complications. A magnesium-based BRS (MgBRS) has shown promising results after implantation. However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the long-term outcomes. Case summary: A 62-year-old man with hypertension, dyslipidaemia, family history of ischaemic heart disease, and previous myocardial infarction, presented with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI). Six years prior, he also had a NSTEMI and a mid-left anterior descending artery (LAD) lesion was treated with a 3.0/25 mm MgBRS. Post-implantation optical coherence tomography (OCT) revealed proximal edge dissection, and a second MgBRS 3.0/15 mm was implanted. Optical coherence tomography of the scaffold-treated segment was performed after 6 and 12 months with no sign of restenosis. The current angiogram showed a restenosis in the previously MgBRS-treated segment in LAD. Optical coherence tomography showed a plaque rupture in a thin cap fibro-atheroma and scaffold remnants. The lesion was pre-dilated and stented with a 3.0/20 mm DES and post-dilated with a 3.5 mm non-compliant balloon. Discussion: Most cases of late scaffold failure showed acquired mal-apposition, which also can be related to the degrading process, or uncovered struts, none of which were seen in our case at 6 or 12 months. This case represents an insight into the vascular healing and potential mechanisms for failure of the MgBRS, with serial OCT recording at implantation, and after 6 months, 12 months, and 6 years.

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This review aimed to explore the therapeutic effect of bioabsorbable stents in the inferior genicular artery, from the emergence of absorbable bare metal stents to the latest technology in polymer and anti-proliferative eluting drugs mixed with coated bioresorbable vascular stents (BVSs). Currently, there are conflicting data regarding the safety and effectiveness of BVSs in infrapopliteal artery interventions, especially compared to the current generation of drug-eluting stents (DESs). This review will cover the existing data on BVSs in reconstructing the infrapopliteal arterial blood flow and active clinical trials for future iterations of BVSs. In terms of primary patency rate and target lesion revascularization rate, the available research on the effectiveness of BVSs in reconstructing the infrapopliteal arterial blood flow suggests that a BVS is compatible with current DESs within 3-12 months; long-term data have not yet been reported. The ABSORB BVS is the most studied BVS in cardiovascular disease (CAD). Initially, the ABSORB BVS showed promising results. Managing intricate regions in peripheral artery disorders, such as branching or lengthy lesions, continues to be a formidable undertaking. In contrast to the advanced narrowing of arteries seen in standard permanent stent procedures, bioabsorbable stents have the potential to promote the expansion and beneficial merging of blood channels in the latter stages. Furthermore, incorporating stents and re-establishing the endothelial function can diminish the probability of restenosis or thrombosis. Nevertheless, the extent to which bioabsorbable stents may simultaneously preserve arterial patency and guarantee their structural integrity remains uncertain. The powerful and intricate mechanical stresses exerted by the blood in the superficial femoral artery and popliteal artery can cause negative consequences on any implant inserted into the vessel, regardless of its composition, even metal. Furthermore, incorporating stents is advantageous for treating persistent occlusive lesions since it does not impact later treatments, including corrective bypass operations. Evidence is scarce about the use of bioabsorbable stents in treating infrapopliteal lesions. Utilizing bioabsorbable stents in minor infrapopliteal lesions can successfully maintain the patency of the blood vessel lumen, whereas balloon angioplasty cannot offer this benefit. The primary focus of testing these materials is determining whether bioabsorbable scaffolds can provide adequate radial force in highly calcified elongated lesions. Indeed, using "-limus" medication elution technology in conjunction with bioabsorbable stents has previously offered clinical benefits in treating the popliteal artery, as evidenced by limited trials.BVSs for peripheral arterial disease (PAD) show promise and have the potential to offer a less inflammatory and more vessel-friendly option compared to permanent metallic stents. However, current evidence does not yet allow for a universal recommendation for their use. Thus, ongoing, and future studies, such as those examining the newer generation of bioresorbable scaffolds (BRSs) with improved mechanical properties and resorption profiles, will be crucial in defining the role of BRSs in managing PAD.

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Successful DNA vaccination generally requires the aid of either a viral vector within vaccine components or an electroporation device into the muscle or skin of the host. However, these systems come with certain obstacles, including limited transgene capacity, broad preexisting immunity in humans, and substantial cell death caused by high voltage pulses, respectively. In this study, we repurposed the use of an amphiphilic bioresorbable copolymer (ABC), called PLA-PEG, as a surface engineering agent that conciliates lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) between stability during preparation and biocompatibility post-vaccination. The LNP carrier can be loaded with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike-specific DNA; in this form, the DNA-LNP is immunogenic in hamsters and elicits protective immunity following DNA-LNP vaccination against heterologous virus challenge or as a hybrid-type vaccine booster against SARS-CoV-2 variants. The data provide comprehensive information on the relationships between LNP composition, manufacturing process, and vaccine efficacy. The outcomes of this study offer new insights into designing next-generation LNP formulations and pave the way for boosting vaccine power to combat existing and possible emerging infectious diseases/pathogens.

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INTRODUCTION: The higher scaffold thrombosis rates observed with the first-generation bioresorbable scaffolds (BRSs) compared to conventional drug-eluting stents were likely due in part to bioresorbable polymers having insufficient radial strength, necessitating larger strut profiles. Meta-analysis of the long-term outcomes from the first-generation Absorb bioresorbable vascular scaffold (BVS) showed that this period of excess risk ended at 3 years. Therefore, current attention has been focused on improving early outcomes by increasing the scaffold's tensile strength and reducing strut thickness. AREAS COVERED: This review summaries the lessons learned from the first-generation BRS. It updates the long-term clinical outcomes of trials evaluating the ABSORB BVS and metallic alloy-based BRS. In addition, it reviews the next-generation BRSs manufactured in Asia. EXPERT OPINION: Critical areas to improve the performance and safety of biodegradable scaffolds include further development in material science, surface modification, delivery systems, and long-term follow-up studies.

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The craniofacial region is characterized by its intricate bony anatomy and exposure to heightened functional forces presenting a unique challenge for reconstruction. Additive manufacturing has revolutionized the creation of customized scaffolds with interconnected pores and biomimetic microarchitecture, offering precise adaptation to various craniofacial defects. Within this domain, medical-grade poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) has been extensively used for the fabrication of 3D printed scaffolds, specifically tailored for bone regeneration. Its adoption for load-bearing applications was driven mainly by its mechanical properties, adjustable biodegradation rates, and high biocompatibility. The present review aims to consolidating current insights into the clinical translation of PCL-based constructs designed for bone regeneration. It encompasses recent advances in enhancing the mechanical properties and augmenting biodegradation rates of PCL and PCL-based composite scaffolds. Moreover, it delves into various strategies improving cell proliferation and the osteogenic potential of PCL-based materials. These strategies provide insight into the refinement of scaffold microarchitecture, composition, and surface treatments or coatings, that include certain bioactive molecules such as growth factors, proteins, and ceramic nanoparticles. The review critically examines published data on the clinical applications of PCL scaffolds in both extraoral and intraoral craniofacial reconstructions. These applications include cranioplasty, nasal and orbital floor reconstruction, maxillofacial reconstruction, and intraoral bone regeneration. Patient demographics, surgical procedures, follow-up periods, complications and failures are thoroughly discussed. Although results from extraoral applications in the craniofacial region are encouraging, intraoral applications present a high frequency of complications and related failures. Moving forward, future studies should prioritize refining the clinical performance, particularly in the domain of intraoral applications, and providing comprehensive data on the long-term outcomes of PCL-based scaffolds in bone regeneration. Future perspective and limitations regarding the transition of such constructs from bench to bedside are also discussed.

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Bioresorbable stents represent a revolutionary treatment for coronary artery disease. Such a device offers the prospect for complete naturalization of artery lumen after strut resorption and restoration of vasomotion while curtailing the duration of dual anti-platelet therapy. The prototype bioresorbable scaffold (BRS-ABSORB GT1) demonstrated good feasibility and safety in the initial studies compared to metallic drug eluting stent but later fell out of favor due to multiple report of stent thrombosis and target lesion failure. Unpredictable resorption of struts turned out to be one of the "Achilles heel" of the BRS and stent strut were still visible in vessel on optical coherence tomography (OCT) at 3 years. We report a case of differential resorption of two ABSORB BRS implanted simultaneously in the same patient by the same operator. Follow up coronary angiogram revealed only minimal plaques on right coronary artery (RCA) and left anterior descending artery (LAD). The BRS were identified on cine-angiogram by their radio-opaque markers at both ends. The OCT run in LAD artery revealed "ghost remnants" of BRS struts in LAD, whereas the RCA BRS had completely healed with minimal "ghost" struts. The ghost remnants of BRS resembled the original "Check box" appearance on OCT during the index implantation.