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BACKGROUND: Substance use disorders (SUDs) have been consistently shown to exhibit moderate intergenerational continuity (1-3). While much research has examined genetic and social influences on addiction, less attention has been paid to clients' and lay persons' perceptions of genetic influences on the heritability of SUD (4) and implications for treatment. METHODS: For this qualitative study, twenty-six structured Working Model of the Child Interviews (WMCI) were conducted with mothers receiving inpatient SUD treatment. These interviews were thematically analyzed for themes related to maternal perceptions around intergenerational transmission of substance use behaviours. RESULTS: Findings show that over half of the mothers in this sample were preoccupied with their children's risk factors for addictions. Among this group, 29% spontaneously expressed concerns about their children's genetic risk for addiction, 54% shared worries about their children's propensity for addiction without mentioning the word gene or genetic. Additionally, 37% had challenges in even discussing their children's future when prompted. These concerns mapped onto internal working models of attachment in unexpected ways, with parents who were coded with balanced working models being more likely to discuss intergenerational risk factors and parents with disengaged working models displaying difficulties in discussing their child's future. CONCLUSION: This research suggests that the dominant discourse around the brain-disease model of addictions, in its effort to reduce stigma and self-blame, may have unintended downstream consequences for parents' mental models about their children's risks for future addiction. Parents receiving SUD treatment, and the staff who deliver it, may benefit from psychoeducation about the intergenerational transmission of SUD as part of treatment.

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In this paper, we provide an overview of mitochondrial bioenergetics and specific conditions that lead to the formation of non-bilayer structures in mitochondria. Secondly, we provide a brief overview on the structure/function of cytotoxins and how snake venom cytotoxins have contributed to increasing our understanding of ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, to reconcile some controversial aspects of the chemiosmotic theory. Specifically, we provide an emphasis on the biochemical contribution of delocalized and localized proton movement, involving direct transport of protons though the Fo unit of ATP synthase or via the hydrophobic environment at the center of the inner mitochondrial membrane (proton circuit) on oxidative phosphorylation, and how this influences the rate of ATP synthesis. Importantly, we provide new insights on the molecular mechanisms through which cobra venom cytotoxins affect mitochondrial ATP synthesis, mitochondrial structure, and dynamics. Finally, we provide a perspective for the use of cytotoxins as novel pharmacological tools to study membrane bioenergetics and mitochondrial biology, how they can be used in translational research, and their potential therapeutic applications.

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Infant mental health clinicians aiming to improve mother-infant dyads at risk typically target mothers' representations of their infant or mother-infant interactions, assuming that one port of entry leads to change in the other. However, little is known about the relation between changes in mothers' representations and in mother-infant interactions. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate this in a low- to moderate-risk community sample of 152 mothers (M = 29.7 years) of infants aged 0-2 years (M = 11.5 months) recruited from rural and urban cities in Norway. The mothers' representations were measured using the Working Model of the Child Interview, and the quality of the mother-infant interactions was measured with the Emotional Availability Scales. We found no evidence of a relation between mothers' changed representations and changed quality of mother-infant interactions. Several explanations concerning the low-risk status of the sample, the observation situation, the time between assessment points, and the homogeneous scores from the instruments used are discussed, as are the implications for clinical practice and future research.

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To study the effect of exposure mixture on the continuous health outcomes, one can use the linear model with a weighted sum of multiple standardized exposure variables as an index predictor and its coefficient for the overall effect. The unknown weights typically range between zero and one, indicating contributions of individual exposures to the overall effect. Because the weight parameters present only when the parameter for overall effect is non-zero, testing hypotheses on the overall effect can be challenging, especially when the number of exposure variables is above two. This paper presents a working model based approach to estimate the parameter for overall effect and to test specific hypotheses, including two tests for detecting the overall effect and one test for detecting unequal weights when the overall effect is evident. The statistics are computationally easy and one can apply existing statistical software to perform the analysis. A simulation study shows that the proposed estimators for the parameters of interest may have better finite sample performance than some other estimators.

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Patterns of insecure attachment are associated with psychopathology but the mechanisms involved remain poorly understood. Cognitive science proposes that attachment patterns are influenced by the autobiographical memory system and in turn influence its ongoing functioning. Disturbances in autobiographical memory represent cognitive risks for later emotional difficulties. We systemically reviewed 33 studies (in 28 articles) examining the association between attachment patterns and autobiographical episodic memory (AEM) in individuals from the age of 16 (i.e., from young to older adulthood). Attachment patterns were associated with key areas of AEM phenomenology, including intensity and arousal; detail, specificity, and vividness; coherence and fragmentation; and accuracy and latency. These associations appeared to be moderated by contextual and individual factors; mediated by emotional regulation and schema-based processing; linked to mental health outcomes. Attachment patterns may also influence the impact of certain AEM-based manipulations. We conclude by providing a critical discussion and a research agenda for bringing together attachment, memory, and emotion, with a view to promote mechanism-driven treatment innovation in clinical psychology.

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The Child Attachment Interview (CAI) has demonstrated promise in youth, yet widespread use is thwarted by the need for interview transcription, face-to-face training, and reliability certification. The present study sought to examine the empirical basis for these barriers. Thirty-five archival CAIs were re-coded by: (1) expert coders (i.e., trained and reliable) without access to transcripts, (2) trained coders who had not completed reliability training, and (3) novice coders who had no formal training. Agreement with consensus classifications was computed with the expectation of moderate agreement. Results supported coding by experts without transcription of the interview. Near-moderate agreement preliminarily supported the use of trained coders who have not attempted reliability certification with appropriate caveats. While moderate agreement was not achieved for novice raters, findings suggest that self-paced training options for the CAI may hold future promise. These contributions erode a number of significant barriers to the current use of the CAI.

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The majority of adult neural stem cells (aNSCs) are in a distinct metabolic state of reversible cell cycle exit also known as quiescence. The rate of aNSC activation determines the number of new neurons generated and directly influences the long-term maintenance of neurogenesis. Despite its relevance, it is still unclear how aNSC quiescence is regulated. Many factors contribute to this, like aNSC heterogeneity, the lack of reliable quiescence markers, the complexity of the neurogenic niches or the intricacy of the transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms involved. In this perspective article I discuss possible solutions to these problems. But, first and foremost, I believe we require a model that goes beyond a simple transition toward activation. Instead, we must acknowledge the full complexity of aNSC states, which include not only activation but also differentiation and survival as behavioural outcomes. I propose a model where aNSCs dynamically transition through a cloud of highly interlinked cellular states driven by intrinsic and extrinsic cues. I also show how a new perspective enables us to integrate current results into a coherent framework leading to the formulation of new testable hypothesis. This model, like all others, is still far from perfect and will be reshaped by future findings. I believe that having a more complete view of aNSC transitions and embracing their complexity will bring us closer to understand how aNSC activity and neurogenesis are controlled throughout life.

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As a result of COVID-19 and in order to combat the spread of the virus, work-from-home and remote working has become a widely accepted practice in professional settings globally. It is widely known that we are currently experiencing a highly transient period in terms of how we define work. Office work is progressively becoming more collaborative, modern workforce more mobile, and office occupancy more dynamic. As flexible working evolves, it becomes apparent that the role of workspace is also changing. So will the occupancy patterns and operation of office building. Using a mixed-method approach, this paper explores the future of offices, considering flexible working model and investigates the operational energy consumption of UK office buildings in the post-pandemic era. Previous research has shown that office buildings are one of the five largest sectors in the building stock in terms of energy consumption. The results of this study demonstrate that by embracing emerging transitions in hybrid working model and activity-based workspace environments, the energy demand in the office building sector could fall below pre-COVID-19 levels, with significant energy savings reaching up to 50% energy reduction in comparison to the pre-pandemic situation.

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Missing data are a major complication in longitudinal data analysis. Weighted generalized estimating equations (WGEEs, Robins et al, J Am Stat Assoc 1995;90:106-121) were developed to deal with missing response data. They have been extended for data with both missing responses and missing covariates (Chen et al, J Am Stat Assoc 2010;105:336-353). However, it may introduce more variability in dealing with the correlation structure of the responses. We propose new WGEEs for missing at random data where both response and (time-dependent) covariates may have values missing in nonmonotone missing data patterns. We also explain how to improve the estimation efficiency of WGEEs using a unified approach (Zhao and Liu, AStA Adv Stat Anal 2021;105(1):87-101). The proposed unified estimator is consistent and more efficient than the regular WGEE estimator. It is computationally simple and can be directly implemented in standard software. Simulation studies for both continuous response and binary response data are provided to examine the performance of the proposed estimators. A clinical trial example investigating the quality of life of women with early-stage breast cancer and the associated factors is analyzed.

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Few studies have examined whether maternal caregiving representations are associated with maternal reflective functioning (MRF), especially when MRF is evaluated longitudinally beginning in pregnancy. This study addresses this gap by evaluating whether prenatal and postnatal MRF are associated with mothers' caregiving representations assessed at 7 months postpartum, and by exploring theoretically unexpected MRF scores in each of the representational categories. Forty-seven mothers were recruited during their last trimester of pregnancy from an obstetrics clinic at a university hospital located in a large mid-western city in the United States. During pregnancy, mothers completed the Pregnancy Interview, and at 7 months postpartum they completed the Parent Development Interview (PDI) and the Working Model of the Child Interview. Results indicate that higher prenatal and postnatal MRF increased the odds of being classified as balanced versus disengaged. At 7 months, MRF also increased the odds of being balanced vs. distorted. Ten mothers who were classified as balanced or distorted had unexpected prenatal MRF scores, and six mothers had unexpected MRF scores when representations were assessed concurrently. Mothers classified as balanced with low MRF scores tended to have a low level of education, whereas mothers classified as distorted with high MRF scores had responses that were hostile, helpless, and role-reversed.

Pocos estudios han examinado el hecho de si las representaciones maternas acerca del cuidado están asociadas con el funcionamiento reflexivo materno (MRF), especialmente cuando MRF se evalúa longitudinalmente comenzando en el embarazo. Este estudio aborda este vacío por medio de evaluar si el MRF prenatal y postnatal está asociado con las representaciones que las madres tienen de prestar el cuidado evaluadas a los 7 meses después del parto, y por medio de explorar teoréticamente los puntajes no esperados de MRF en cada categoría representativa. Se reclutaron cuarenta y siete madres durante su último trimestre de embarazo del hospital de una universidad localizado en una ciudad del medio oeste de los Estados Unidos. Durante el embarazo, las madres completaron la Entrevista de Embarazo y a los 7 meses después del parto ellas completaron la Entrevista del Desarrollo del Progenitor y el Modelo de Trabajo de la Entrevista del Niño. Los resultados indican que el más alto MRF prenatal y postnatal también aumentó las posibilidades de ser clasificada como equilibrada vs. indiferente. A los 7 meses, el MRF también aumentó las posibilidades de ser equilibrada vs. distorsionada. Diez madres a quienes se les clasificó como equilibradas o distorsionadas tuvieron puntajes de MRF prenatales no esperados, y seis madres tuvieron no esperados puntajes de MRF cuando las representaciones fueron evaluadas al mismo tiempo. Las madres a quienes se les clasificó como equilibradas con bajos puntajes de MRF tendían a tener un nivel bajo de educación, mientras que las madres a quienes se les clasificó como distorsionadas con puntajes altos de MRF tuvieron respuestas que eran hostiles, indefensas y de inversión de papeles.

Peu d'études ont examiné si les représentations du soin maternel sont liées au fonctionnement réflectif maternel (abrégé ici selon l'anglais maternal reflective functioning, soit MRF), surtout lorsque le MRF est évalué de manière longitudinale à commencer par la grossesse. Cette étude porte sur cet écart en évaluant si le MRF prénatal et postnatal est lié aux représentations du soin des mères évalué à 7 mois postpartum, et en explorant des scores MRF théoriquement inattendus dans chacune des catégories représentationnelles. Quarante-sept mères ont été recrutées durant leur dernier trimestre de grossesse dans un CHU situé dans une grande ville du centre des Etats-Unis. Durant la grossesse les mères ont passé l'Entretien de Grossesse et à 7 mois postpartum elles ont passé l'Entretien du Développement du Parent et le Modèle de Travail de l'Entretien de l'Enfant. Les résultats indiquent qu'un MRF prénatal et postnatal élevé augmentait les chances d'être classé comme équilibrée par rapport à désengagée. A 7 mois, le MRF augmentait aussi les chances d'être équilibrée par rapport à faussée. Dix mères qui ont été classées comme étant équilibrées ou faussées avaient des scores de MRF prénatal inattendus et six mères avaient des scores de MRF inattendu quand les représentations étaient évaluées en même temps. Les mères classées comme équilibrées avec des scores de MRF bas tendaient à avoir un niveau d'éducation plus bas, alors que les mères classées comme faussées avec des scores de MRF élevés ont fait preuve de réactions qui étaient hostiles, désemparées et de rôle inversé.

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The borderline intellectual functioning (BIF) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by a borderline intelligence quotient (range 70-85) with difficulties in cognitive and social domains. Children with BIF often live in adverse conditions and show academic and behavioral difficulties. Rehabilitation programs for these children focus mainly on cognitive aspects, sometimes with the aid of new technologies that are able to engage and motivate. In this framework, the affective development of children with BIF and its possible role both in the difficulties they manifest and in the rehabilitation is still poorly investigated. In this work, we investigate the characteristics of the internal working models of these children by applying the separation anxiety test, using both the classical and a new coding system to identify the specific features of the attachment representation. Results delineate a profile characterized by low self-confidence and high separation anxiety, with a tendency to somatization. In the light of these results, we suggest that this attachment profile has an impact on the therapeutic relationships and on the efficacy in the use of technological devices. We propose a new perspective in which the interpersonal relationship with the psychologist and the support of the self-confidence of children are crucial to treating cognitive and behavioral difficulties in children with BIF. Only in this case, the use of new technologies and tools may be effective in promoting the greatest possible benefit from therapeutic interventions.

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The Working Model of the Child Interview (WMCI) is frequently used to measure parents' representations. Beyond the global categories (balanced, disengaged, distorted), the reliability, factor structure, and validity of all the 15 clinical scales have not previously been studied. The WMCI was administered to 152 Norwegian mothers of infants (mean age = 7.3 months) recruited from community well-baby clinics. Interrater reliability was adequate for the global categories and moderate for the clinical scales. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis yielded three factors with evidence of factorial validity: Factor 1 balanced; factor 2 resentful; factor 3 apprehensive. Factor 1 corresponded with the original category balanced, while factor 2 and factor 3 corresponded with the original category distorted. Concurrent validity was supported as mothers with balanced representation (factor 1) were less stressed and the mother-infant interaction was more positive than that of mothers with resentful representation. Mothers with resentful or apprehensive representations (factor 2 and factor 3) reported more stress. The extracted factors and demographic variables correlated weakly or not at all, confirming discriminant validity. Our findings show that the clinical scales of the WMCI can be used in research with low- to moderate-risk samples.

El Modelo de Trabajo de la Entrevista del Niño (WMCI) se usa frecuentemente para medir las representaciones de los progenitores. Más allá de las categorías globales (equilibradas, desconectadas, distorsionadas), la confiabilidad, la estructura de factores y la validez de todas las 15 escalas clínicas no han sido previamente estudiadas. Se les administró el WMCI a 152 madres noruegas de infantes (edad media = 7.3 meses) reclutadas de clínicas comunitarias para el bienestar del bebé. La confiabilidad entre los evaluadores fue adecuada para las categorías globales y moderada para las escalas clínicas. Los análisis exploratorios de factores (EFA) y los análisis confirmatorios de factores (CFA) produjeron tres factores con evidencia de validez factorial: Factor 1) equilibradas; factor 2) resentidas; factor 3) aprensivas. El factor 1 se correspondió con la categoría original de equilibradas, mientras que el factor 2 y el factor 3 se correspondieron con la categoría original de distorsionadas. La validez concurrente encontró apoyo en que las madres con una representación equilibrada (factor 1) estaban menos estresadas y la interacción madre-infante fue más positiva que la de las madres con representaciones resentidas. Las madres con representaciones resentidas o aprensivas (factor 2 y factor 3) reportaron más estrés. Los factores extraídos y las variables demográficas se correlacionaron débilmente o no se correlacionaron del todo, lo cual confirma la validez discriminante. Nuestros resultados muestran que las escalas clínicas del WMCI pueden usarse en la investigación con grupos muestras de bajo a moderado riesgo.

Le Modèle Fonctionnel de l'Entretien de l'Enfant (WMCI en anglais) est fréquemment utilisé pour mesurer les représentations des parents. Au-delà des catégories globales (équilibré, désengagé, déformé), la fiabilité, la structure de facteur et la validité de toutes les 15 échelles cliniques n'ont pas été étudiées jusqu'à présent. Le WMCI a été donné à 152 mères de nourrissons norvégiennes (âge moyen = 7,3 mois) recrutées dans des cliniques de bien-être du bébé communautaires. La fiabilité entre les évaluateurs était adéquate pour les catégories globales et modérée pour les échelles cliniques. L'Analyse Factorielle Exploratoire (AFE) et l'Analyse Factorielle de Confirmation (AFC) ont produit trois facteurs avec une preuve de validité factorielle: Facteur 1) équilibré; facteur 2) rancunier; facteur 3) appréhensif. Le facteur 1 correspondait à la catégorie originale balancé, alors que le facteur 2 et le facteur 3 correspondaient à la catégorie originale déformé. La validité simultanée a été confirmée puisque les mères avec une représentation équilibrée (facteur 1) étaient moins stressées et l'interaction mère-bébé était plus positive que celle des mères avec une représentation rancunière. Les mères avec des représentations rancunières ou appréhensives (facteur 2 et facteur 3) ont fait état de plus de stress. Les facteurs extraits et les variables démographiques se sont faiblement corrélés ou pas du tout, confirmant une validité discriminante. Nos résultats montrent que les échelles cliniques du WMCI peut être utilisée dans les recherches avec des échantillons à risque faible à modéré.

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BACKGROUND: Despite wide recognition of the necessity of an integrative maintenance and return to work (RTW) program for cancer survivors, no such program has been described in the literature. AIMS: To examine a working model of an integrative multidisciplinary health care approach for promoting RTW, using the Delphi method. METHODS: A working model for promoting cancer survivors' RTW by oncology health professionals was subjected to two rounds of evaluation by an expert panel in accordance with the Delphi research method. Twenty-six international experts in oncology (social workers, nurses, psychologists, physicians, and cancer patients) participated in the first round and 16 participated in the second round. RESULTS: The mean score of the working model's applicability was 6.07 (SD = 1.07, range = 1-7). The model outlines in detail an integrative approach for promotion of RTW according to two axes: the oncology health professionals' role and the timeline axis featuring four stages of oncology treatment and follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Our proposed model addresses the need for an integrated program that may increase the rate of RTW and improve the quality of life of cancer survivors. The model should be subjected to further evaluation, especially its adaptability to different health systems in different countries.

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The delayed delivery, poor fitting and discomfort of customised orthoses are reported in rehabilitation clinics as resulting in more invasive interventions. The current practice of orthosis customisation relies heavily upon the experience and fabrication processes of therapists. In order to better understand the current practice, and thus identify data that is required for better comfort moving towards a data-driven customisation, this article describes a study generating working models of therapists. Customisations of hand and wrist orthoses for 18 patients were observed. Verbal protocol analysis was employed to extend the current understanding of fabrication processes. Working models of four therapists were established with quantitative evaluation on major phases, interactive activities and iterations of performing tasks during fabrication, revealing different working models between in- and out-patient departments (e.g. fabrication for in-patients was more complex and focussed on ergonomic fitting whereas fabrication for out-patients paid attention to durability) which were qualitatively explained. Practitioner summary: Fit and comfort are imperative for orthosis design and fabrication, however the current practice of customisation of an orthosis relies upon the experience of individual hand therapist. The article presents working models of hand therapists, and relevant data that would enable customisation of orthosis for better fit. Abbreviations: VPA: verbal protocol analysis; h&w: hand and wrist; LTT: low temperature thermoplastic; ANOVA: analysis of variance.

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Researchers returned to the home of Mary Ainsworth's original attachment study to explore the contributions of Ugandan children's representations of attachment interactions with their caregivers to their perceptions about gender. Researchers administered the Attachment Story-Completion Task (ASCT) and applied three attachment narrative coding systems and a gender stereotypes typology to the ASCT stories of 51 Ugandan children ages 5-7. Nine attachment narrative variables were applied to the children's responses to a series of five attachment story stems told using a family of dolls. The narratives emerging from the children's responses to these story stems were also coded independently for 14 masculine and 14 feminine gender stereotypes. Empathic relations among the dolls and narrative coherence were positively correlated with counterstereotypical gender representations only in girls. Attachment representations of a rejecting father were positively correlated with stereotypical gender representations only in boys. Representations of attachment avoidance were negatively correlated with counterstereotypical gender representations in both boys and girls. The findings suggested two different trajectories for the development of gender representation flexibility in boys and girls. This study contextualizes these findings against the backdrop of a country with rigid sex roles and a fast-growing child population.

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Emotion regulation (ER) strategies can decrease the intensity or modify the experience of emotions. Deficits in emotion regulation are implicated in a wide range of psychopathologies. It is argued that interpersonal, socio-cognitive, and developmental variables play an important role in ER. This is the first study to explore the contribution of individual differences in internal representations of relationships (IRR) to neural correlates of ER in a sample of adolescents. Event related potentials of 53 adolescents (12 to 17 years old) were collected while performing an ER task. IRR was assessed with the social cognition and object relations scale (SCORS-G; Westen, 1995) coding of narratives from interviews. Results show that individual differences in IRR significantly predicted the modulation of emotional responses by expressive suppression in adolescents, accounting for 48% of the variance of changes in occipital late positive potentials (LPP). Thus, it appears that IRR are implicated in an individual's ability to regulate emotions. The clinical implications of the findings are discussed.

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Most terpenoids are derived from the basic terpene skeletons of geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP, C10), farnesyl-PP (FPP, C15) and geranylgeranyl-PP (GGPP, C20). The trans-prenyltransferases (PTs) mediate the sequential head-to-tail condensation of an isopentenyl-PP (C5) with allylic substrates. The in silico structural comparative analyses of rice trans-PTs with 136 plant trans-PT genes allowed twelve rice PTs to be identified as GGPS_LSU (OsGGPS1), homomeric G(G)PS (OsGPS) and GGPS_SSU-II (OsGRP) in Group I; two solanesyl-PP synthase (OsSPS2 and 3) and two polyprenyl-PP synthases (OsSPS1 and 4) in Group II; and five FPSs (OsFPS1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) in Group III. Additionally, several residues in "three floors" for the chain length and several essential domains for enzymatic activities specifically varied in rice, potentiating evolutionarily rice-specific biochemical functions of twelve trans-PTs. Moreover, expression profiling and localization patterns revealed their functional compartmentation in rice. Taken together, we propose the predicted topology-based working model of rice PTs with corresponding terpene metabolites: GPP/GGPPs mainly in plastoglobuli, SPPs in stroma, PPPs in cytosol, mitochondria and chloroplast and FPPs in cytosol. Our findings could be suitably applied to metabolic engineering for producing functional terpene metabolites in rice systems.

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Purpose: Digitalization and e-health have potential to generate good quality, equal health, well-being and to develop and strengthen individuals' resources with the goal of increased independence and participation in society. The implementation of welfare technology requires knowledge of digitalization, as well as an awareness of its meaning in terms of ethical principles and ethical analysis. The purpose of this study was to describe ethical analysis concerning the implementation of welfare technology, in terms of both strategies and tools, within areas of social services in a Swedish municipality. Method: We followed a working model that focused on increased knowledge and experience in the implementation of welfare technology from an ethical perspective. In the data collection were observations, a questionnaire with open-ended questions and focus group discussions used. Results: The analysis showed that when welfare technology was introduced and implemented within the area of social services in a municipality, ethical awareness resulting from the conflicts between various interests and values had to be addressed. Conclusions: The ethical analysis improved implementation of strategies and tools in terms of facts and values, and invisible underlying values to the concept of well-being.

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Attachment theorists have characterized children's internal working models, forged from early attachment relationship histories, as the link between earlier and later manifestations of competence. In this study, working models of attachment were measured as access to and use of the secure base script (SBS) to organize children's attachment relevant narratives (N = 139). Study goals were to assess relations between SBS use and a range of adaptive functioning domains including peer social competence, teacher/child relationships, effortful control, executive function, and verbal intelligence. Simultaneous path analyses using structural equations indicated that SBS use was significantly associated with each of these outcome domains. Findings were reproduced when effects of verbal intelligence, sex and age were controlled, except for effortful control. Results suggest that children's internalized attachment representations are intertwined with adaptive functioning during early childhood.

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