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Body size is an important morphological characteristic that covaries with the quality of parasitoids and predators. Data show that the larger the organism is, the better the biological parameters and the host location by natural enemies in the field. The standard way of evaluating the size of parasitoids of the genus Trichogramma (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) is by measuring the tibia, but using only one body part to estimate the size of organisms can lead to miscalculations. In this paper, commercial Trichogramma pretiosum Riley, 1879 (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) and Trichogramma galloi Zucchi, 1988 (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) were mounted on slides for microscopy and photographed, and the photographs were used to measure their antennae, scutellum, ovipositor, tibia, and wing. Principal component analysis (PCA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) were performed to select the body part that best represents their size. PCA showed that all body parts represented size in a similar way, and LDA showed that the ovipositor was the most representative. We conclude that the best body parts for representing the size of the Trichogramma species studied are the wing and ovipositor, and at least two body parts are needed to detect two size groups.

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Synaldis is a taxon within the Aspilota group with a contentious taxonomic history, currently classified as a subgenus of the genus Dinotrema. Species of Synaldis were only documented in the Neotropical region in 2017, and until then, the Neotropical fauna of this subgenus was represented by five species from Brazil. In this study, Synaldis is reported for the first time in Chile, with the description and illustration of ten new species, namely: Dinotrema (Synaldis) acarinareolatumsp. nov., D. (S.) brunneumsp. nov., D. (S.) chilensesp. nov., D. (S.) daltonisp. nov., D. (S.) flavumsp. nov., D. (S.) latusdentertiumsp. nov., D. (S.) perisfelipoisp. nov., D. (S.) pilosicaudatumsp. nov., D. (S.) puyehuesp. nov., and D. (S.) veraesp. nov. The studied specimens were collected during expeditions to southern Chile, in the Valdivian temperate rainforest at Parque Nacional de Puyehue. This study also includes a dichotomous identification key for Neotropical species of Synaldis, as well as a discussion of the primary morphological characters used to distinguish species within the Neotropical and Nearctic regions.

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Here we describe two new Grotea species from Ecuador, G. akakana Mazón & Bordera sp. nov., and G. romeri Mazón sp. nov., as well as the male of G. cundinamarquesa Herrera-Flórez 2018. G. akakana sp. nov. is characterized by the combination of a postgenal process long, a 45-flagellomeres antenna without a white band and a mesopleuron black with two yellow spots separated by a red one. On the other hand, G. romeri sp. nov. is characterized by the combination of a postgenal process very short, a 36-flagellomeres antenna without a white band, a propodeum with a long and narrow area lateralis, uninterrupted yellow-colored orbits and a mesopleuron black with a yellow spot in the middle. The species G. santandereana Herrera-Flórez 2018 and G. surinamese Herrera-Flórez 2019 are recorded from Ecuador for the first time. This brings the total of described Grotea species to 31, all from the New World, with 27 of these exclusively Neotropical. A key for the identification of Neotropical species is included.

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Ichneumonidae, or Chilean Darwin wasps, are an important component of South American hymenopteran diversity, but the taxonomic and distributional knowledge on this insect is still deficient. Taking advantage of recently updated taxonomic knowledge, we assessed biogeographic relationships at the genus level and biodiversity spatial patterns along the latitudinal gradient. The results show the presence of 264 species in Chile, arranged in 102 genera and 22 subfamilies. Biogeographic relationships are based on six elements (cosmopolitan (n = 50; 36%), endemic (n = 29; 21%), Neotropical (n = 22; 16%), Holarctic-Oriental (n = 19; 14%), south-temperate (n = 16; 11%) and Australasian) and composed of just three genera: Anacis, Labena, and Meringops. Species and genera show a bimodal distribution along the latitudinal gradient: around 34° and 38° S. From an ecoregional perspective, richness is concentrated in the Valdivian temperate forests, but when assessed at a 0.5 × 0.5 cell scale, several outstanding cells are in the contact zone between the temperate forests and the Chilean Matorral. On the other hand, the Atacama Desert shows little or no presence of Darwin wasps. The results agree with Charles Porter, who identified a northern province composed of Neotropical and cosmopolitan genera with their own representatives in the far north (11 genera), a distributional gap in the core of the Atacama Desert, and around 128 genera in Porter's Neantarctic realm, covering all of Chile from 25° S to Cape Horn, including the Juan Fernandez islands. These results reinforce knowledge gaps and the need for more sampling and studies of available collections. Due to sampling gaps at this stage, identifying a continued increase or decrease in richness towards higher latitudes is not possible. More taxonomic and distributional information is also needed to assess potential threats to endemic genera and species.

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The history of the taxonomy of Trichogramma parasitoid wasps can be divided into two phases. In the first phase, species identifications were based on external morphological characters; however, these identifications proved to be confusing and inaccurate. In the second phase, starting in the 1970s, taxa were identified based on charcteristics of the male genital capsule , leading to a major advance in Trichogramma taxonomy. The history of Trichogramma taxonomy in Brazil is recent and mainly related to species that parasitize agricultural pests. In Brazil, the first phase of Trichogramma taxonomy occurred in the 1960s, while the second phase occurred from the 1980s onward. In this second phase, Trichogramma taxonomy progressed significantly and knowledge of Trichogramma diversity as well as associations with lepidopteran pests improved markedly in Brazil as well as worldwide. The last five decades have seen significant progress in studies in Brazil, with taxonomy evolving from identifications based exclusively on morphological characters to integrative taxonomy, encompassing biology (crosses) and morphometry. This historical outline presents the phases of Trichogramma taxonomy in Brazil, addressing the hurdles encountered in the first descriptions, erroneous records of the species, and species descriptions since the 1980s. We highlight the importance of accurately identifying Trichogramma taxa for their use in biological control, as well as species diversity and associations with lepidopteran hosts.

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In biological control, joint releases of predators and parasitoids are standard. However, intraguild predation (IGP) can occur when a predator attacks a parasitoid, potentially affecting pest control dynamics. In addition to the focal prey (FP), Trialeurodes vaporariorum, the intraguild predator (IG-predator) Geocoris punctipes can consume the parasitoid Eretmocerus eremicus (IG-prey). In this IGP context with multiple prey, an alternative prey (AP), like the aphid Myzus persicae, may influence interactions. Theory predicts that, in simple interactions, a predator's functional response (FR) to the FP changes with the presence of an AP. However, whether this holds in an IGP context is unknown. In this study, we empirically tested that prediction. Our results show that without IGP, G. punctipes exhibits a generalized FR with and without AP. Nevertheless, with IGP, the predator exhibited a Type II FR at low and high AP densities, increasing pressure on the FP and potentially favoring short-term biological control strategies. However, when 25 AP were offered, the predator's response shifted, underscoring the importance of monitoring AP densities to prevent potential disruptions in FP control. In both contexts, the increase in AP produced a handling time increase and a decrease in consumption rate. These results indicate that the theoretical prediction of the effect of AP on the FR is met only under specific conditions, and the complexity of multitrophic interactions must be considered.

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During the last decade, the spotted wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii, has spread from eastern Asia to the Americas, Europe, and Africa. This fly attacks many species of cultivated and wild fruits with soft, thin skins, where its serrated ovipositor allows it to lay eggs in undamaged fruit. Parasitoids from the native range of D. suzukii may provide sustainable management of this polyphagous pest. Among these parasitoids, host-specificity testing has revealed a lineage of Ganaspis near brasiliensis, referred to in this paper as G1, that appears to be a cryptic species more host-specific to D. suzukii than other parasitoids. Differentiation among cryptic species is critical for introduction and subsequent evaluation of their impact on D. suzukii. Here, we present results on divergence in genomic sequences and architecture and reproductive isolation between lineages of Ganaspis near brasiliensis that appear to be cryptic species. We studied five populations, two from China, two from Japan, and one from Canada, identified as the G1 vs G3 lineages based on differences in cytochrome oxidase l sequences. We assembled and annotated the genomes of these populations and analyzed divergences in sequence and genome architecture between them. We also report results from crosses to test reproductive compatibility between the G3 lineage from China and the G1 lineage from Japan. The combined results on sequence divergence, differences in genome architectures, ortholog divergence, reproductive incompatibility, differences in host ranges and microhabitat preferences, and differences in morphology show that these lineages are different species. Thus, the decision to evaluate the lineages separately and only import and introduce the more host-specific lineage to North America and Europe was appropriate.

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Wasps are important parasitoids of stinkbugs and frequently exposed to various types of microorganisms through environmental contact and fecal-oral transmission route. Many parasitize stinkbug eggs and are commercially used in the field to control insect population. The parasitoid T. podisi is known for its high parasitism capacity and ability to target multiple species of stinkbugs. In this study we asked whether T. podisi exposed to eggs infected by a multispecies asymptomatic stinkbug virus, the Halyomorpha halys virus (HhV) would get infected. HhV is a geographically distributed multispecies iflavirus previously found to infect four stinkbug hosts, including three Brazilian species, Chinavia ubica, Euschistus heros and Diceraeus melacanthus, and T. posidi can parasitize all of them. As results, RT-PCR screening revealed positive samples for the HhV genome in two out of four tested pools of T. podisi, whereas the antigenome, indicative of replicative activity, was not detected. The wasps were raised in E. heros eggs that presented both the genome and the antigenome forms of the HhV genome. Subsequent RNA-deep sequencing of HhV positive T. podisi RNA pools yielded a complete genome of HhV with high coverage. Phylogenetic analysis positioned the isolate HhV-Tp (isolate Telenomus podisi) alongside with the stinkbug HhV. Analysis of transcriptomes from several hymenopteran species revealed HhV-Tp reads in four species. However, the transmission mechanism and the ecological significance of HhV remain elusive, warranting further studies to illuminate both the transmission process and its capacity for environmental propagation using T. podisi as a potential vector.

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Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), the cactus moth, is native to South America with a widespread distribution in Argentina. The larvae consume the interior of Opuntia spp. (Cactaceae) plants. The moth was used as a biocontrol agent against invasive non-native Opuntia spp. in many countries around the world. The cactus moth arrived unintentionally in Florida, USA, expanded its range and threatened Opuntia-based agriculture and natural ecosystems in southern North America. The insect is also a pest of cultivated O. ficus-indica L. in Argentina. An endemic South American parasitoid, Goniozus legneri Gordth (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae), is used in inundative biological control programmes against lepidopteran pests. The goal of this work was to evaluate G. legneri as a biocontrol agent to be used in inundative releases against C. cactorum. Mortality of C. cactorum by G. legneri was assessed at different spatial scales, as well as the interactions with Apanteles opuntiarum Martínez & Berta (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a common Argentine natural enemy of C. cactorum. The ability of G. legneri to paralyse, parasitise and kill C. cactorum was confirmed. The paralysis inflicted on C. cactorum larvae reduced larval damage to the plants by 85%. Using two parasitoid species increased the mortality of C. cactorum larvae, but it was highly dependent on the order of their arrival. The combined mortality caused by both parasitoids was higher than a single one, in particular when G. legneri arrived first (56 ± 1%), suggesting asymmetric competition due to the preference of G. legneri attacking previously parasitised larvae. Goniozus legneri has potential as an inundative biocontrol agent of C. cactorum, but its interaction with the classical biocontrol agent A. opuntiarum needs to be considered.

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In South America, the resident pupal parasitoid Trichopria anastrephae Costa Lima (Hymenoptera: Diapriidae) is a potential biological control agent of the pest Drosophila suzukii Matsumura (Diptera: Drosophilidae). In the present study, we (1) examined the behavior of T. anastrephae towards different host (D. suzukii) and host-substrate (strawberry) cues in choice and non-choice bioassays in laboratory, and (2) examined the density-dependent parasitism of T. anastrephae in D. suzukii-infested strawberries in a greenhouse. When given a choice, female parasitoids walked longer over chambers with fruits infested with eggs, larvae, or pupae of D. suzukii, when compared to healthy uninfested strawberries, and over overripe fruits when compared to unripe or ripe fruits. In the greenhouse assay, we observed an increase in parasitism and a decrease in the number of D. suzukii emerging per fruit with an increase in the number of parasitoids released. Our results allow a better understanding of the behavior and parasitism of T. anastrephae in D. suzukii-infested strawberries and provide useful data for potential biological control programs using this parasitoid.

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The Southeast Asian-native Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura) (Diptera: Drosophilidae), also known as "spotted-wing Drosophila," is one of the most globally invasive agricultural species. Although D. suzukii is a pest spread throughout all the Argentinian fruit-growing regions, few information has been published on its impact on local fruit production. Parasitoid species associated with D. suzukii in Argentina belong to Pteromalidae (Chalcidoidea), Diapriidae (Diaprioidea), both attacking host pupae, and Figitidae (Cynipoidea), which attack host larvae. Nine Eucoilinae (Figitidae) species, belonging to Dicerataspis, Dieucoila, Euxestophaga, Ganaspis, Hexacola, and Leptopilina genera, have been associated with D. suzukii in Argentina. Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), commonly known as "medfly," is native to Africa and has a worldwide distribution, covering many tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions. In Argentina, C. capitata has been associated with several native hymenopterous parasitoids belonging to Braconidae (Ichneumonioidea), Eulophidae (Chalcidoidea), Pteromalidae, Diapriidae, and Figitidae families. Only two eucoline species, Ganaspis pelleranoi (Brèthes) and Leptopilina haywardi (Blanchard) have been related to medfly in Argentina. We report new trophic associations between the parasitoids Dicerataspis grenadensis Ashmead and Leptopilina boulardi (Barbotin, Carton and Kelner-Pillault) and D. suzukii, and between the parasitoid Odontosema albinerve Kieffer and C. capitata, after surveys conducted in Tucumán, northwestern Argentina. An annotated checklist and a taxonomic key of Eucoilinae associated with both invasive pests, in Argentina, are also provided.

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Understanding the seasonal dynamics inherent to non-crop host-fruit fly-parasitoid interactions is vitally important for implementing eco-friendly pest control strategies. This study assessed the abundance and seasonal infestation levels of three pest fly species, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann), Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura), as well as the related saprophytic drosophilids, and their natural parasitism in a disturbed wild habitat characterized by non-crop hosts in northwestern Argentina over 40 months. Juglans australis Griseb (walnut), Citrus aurantium L. (sour orange), Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindley (loquat), Prunus persica (L.) Batsch (peach), and Psydium guajava L. (guava) were sampled throughout their fruiting seasons. Fruits were collected from both the tree canopies and the ground. The most abundant puparia was A. fraterculus, followed by C. capitata and D. suzukii. Drosophila species from the D. melanogaster group were highly abundant only in fallen fruits. Spatiotemporal overlaps of different host fruit availability provided suitable sources for pest proliferation throughout the year. The populations of both invasive pests peaked from December to January, and were related to the highest ripe peach availability, whereas the A. fraterculus population peaked from February to April, overlapping with the guava fruiting period. The three pest fly species were parasitized mainly by three generalist resident parasitoids, which are potential biocontrol agents to use within an integrated pest management approach.

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The spotted wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii Matsumura, is native to Southeast Asia and has become a serious pest of soft-skinned fruits worldwide. Several control methods are being tested worldwide as part of an integrated pest management approach. Biological control is a promising alternative tactic that can be used to manage D. suzukii populations, especially in unmanaged areas. This study aimed at exploring the diversity of resident hymenopteran parasitoids of drosophilids in northwestern Patagonia, where D. suzukii is considered an important pest. The survey also aimed to investigate possible associations between parasitoids and D. suzukii in several crops and non-crop fruits, and to determine D. suzukii fruits infestation levels. Fourteen sites with mainly berry crops were sampled biweekly using cider vinegar traps and collecting fresh fruits from a variety of crop and non-crop fruit plants. We identified five species of hymenopteran parasitoids, obtained from the baited traps, that have the potential to associate with D. suzukii: Leptopilina heterotoma Thomson, Ganaspis brasiliensis Ihering, Hexacola hexatoma Hartig (Figitidae), Pachycrepoideus vindemmiae Rondani (Pteromalidae), and Spalangia endius Walker (Spalangiidae). Leptopilina heterotoma is reported for the first time in Argentina. High numbers of D. suzukii adults were recovered from baited traps and field-collected fruits. However, no parasitoid emerged from D. suzukii pupae recovered from fruits, nor were any dead parasitoids recorded inside D. suzukii pupae. Overall infestation levels of D. suzukii on field-collected fruits did not differ significantly between species/varieties. The results are discussed with emphasis on the possible functionality and perspectives of using these species as biological control agents.

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ABSTRACT Nasonia vitripennis (Walker, 1836) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) is a parasitoid involved in the biological control of several insects, including blow flies (Diptera, Calliphoridae) of economic importance. The aim of this study was to describe the morphological aspects of the immature stages of N. vitripennis and to record the postembryonic development time, using pupae of Chrysomya putoria (Wiedeman, 1830) as host. The experiment was conducted in a climatic chamber at 27°C/ day and 25°C/ night, with 60 ± 10% relative humidity and 14h photophase. Three experiment were conducted, each one with different host-parasitoid exposure times, of 12 hours, 16 hours and 24 hours respectively. In each experiment, the host:parasitoid relation applied was three host pupae of C. putoria to one parasitoid female. The experiment lasted 17 days, and it was used nine pupae per day totalizing 153 host pupae. The parasitoidism rate was 16.3% (12h), 40.5% (16h) and 94.1% (24h), respectively. The immature development duration of N. vitripennis with 16 and 24 hours of exposure, was as follows: egg stage (1st day), larvae (2nd to 6th day), prepupae (7th day), pupae (from 8th to 13th day) and pharate adult (14th day). The emergence of the adult parasitoids occurred on the 16th and 15th day with the exposure times of 16 and 24 hours, respectively. The exposure period of 24 hours was the ideal to observe the development time and to characterize the immature of N. vitripennis when compared to the 16 and 12 hours.

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The historical and geographical properties of the archipelagos allow a detailed study of species diversification, and phenotypic traits can indicate the extent of such processes. Eupelmus pulchriceps (Cameron, 1904) is an exotic species to the Galapagos archipelago, and generalist parasitoid that attacks a beetle species that consumes the seeds of the invasive shrub Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. Despite extensive sampling, the wasp is recorded only in Santa Cruz and San Cristobal islands of the Galapagos archipelago. Thus, using 112 female wasps, we compare body size, proportion, and allometric differentiations within and between the two islands. There were no body size differences between islands. A PerMANOVA indicates differences between the islands and a single differentiation between two localities of one island. Allometric differences between islands were not the same for all structures. These results are consistent with the greater distance between islands than between localities and suggest a differentiation process. The variables with allometric differentiation are associated with wings and ovipositor, possibly responding to different ecological pressures. It is interesting that this parasitoid, recently arrived at the archipelago, is already showing differentiation. Also, it is essential to monitor the behavior of these wasps in the archipelago, given their potential to access other species affecting the trophic interactions of the local biota.

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Understanding how biodiversity varies from place to place is a fundamental goal of ecology and an important tool for halting biodiversity loss. Parasitic wasps (Hymenoptera) are a diverse and functionally important animal group, but spatial variation in their diversity is poorly understood. We survey a community of parasitic wasps (Ichneumonidae: Pimplinae) using Malaise traps up a mountain in the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest, and relate the catch to biotic and abiotic habitat characteristics. We find high species richness compared with previous similar studies, with abundance, richness, and diversity peaking at low to intermediate elevation. There is a marked change in community composition with elevation. Habitat factors strongly correlated with elevation also strongly predict changes in the pimpline community, including temperature as well as the density of bamboo, lianas, epiphytes, small trees, and herbs. These results identify several possible surrogates of pimpline communities in tropical forests, which could be used as a tool in conservation. They also contribute to the growing evidence for a typical latitudinal gradient in ichneumonid species richness, and suggest that low to medium elevations in tropical regions will sometimes conserve the greatest number of species locally, but to conserve maximal biodiversity, a wider range of elevations should also be targeted.

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The egg parasitoid Cleruchoides noackae Lin & Huber, 2007 (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) is originated from Australia and the main biological control agent of Thaumastocoris peregrinus Carpenter & Dellapé, 2006 (Hemiptera: Thaumastocoridae) on Eucalyptus L'Hér (Myrtaceae). Companies that grow Eucalyptus are in need of a mass rearing protocol to increase the number of individuals produced and improve the quality of this parasitoid. The aim of this study was to define a protocol for mass rearing C. noackae in T. peregrinus eggs, based in the evaluations of the key biological attributes of this parasitoid in the parental and F1 generations, after the cold storage of the parasitised host eggs. Two methods were tested as C. noackae rearing protocols. In the first, parasitised eggs of T. peregrinus by C. noackae were cold stored for 7 days after being left in a climatic chamber at 24 ± 2°C, 60 ± 10% RH and a photoperiod of 12:12 (light:dark) h (standard environmental conditions) for 3, 6, 9 or 12 days. In the second, T. peregrinus eggs parasitised by C. noackae were maintained in a climatic chamber under standard environmental conditions for 6 days, after which these eggs were cold-stored for 0 (control), 7, 14 or 21 days. Parasitism (%), and the development period (parasitism to adult) and female proportion (%) of C. noackae were evaluated. Based on the results (parental generation: parasitism, around 45%; F1 generation: parasitism, around 55%; development period, around 16 days; female proportion, around 60%), eggs should be stored at 5°C on the sixth day after parasitism by C. noackae and maintained at this temperature for 7 days. The cold storage of T. peregrinus eggs, after parasitism, can be included in the mass rearing protocols of the parasitoid C. noackae.

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A new species of Sesioctonus (Braconidae: Agathidinae), Sesioctonus alvaradae sp. nov. from Peru, is described and illustrated. With the addition of this new species, Sesioctonus genus has 36 species.

Una nueva especie de Sesioctonus (Braconidae: Agathidinae), Sesioctonus alvaradae sp. nov. para Perú, es descrita e ilustrada. Con la adición de esta nueva especie, el género Sesioctonus tiene 36 especies.

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The Spodoptera complex of the family Noctuidae, represented here by S. frugiperda (J.E. Smith), S. eridania (Stoll), S. albula (Walker), and S. cosmioides (Walker), is an important group of crop pests in Brazil. Spodoptera frugiperda and S. eridania are invasive in Africa, and the former also in Asia and Oceania. The egg parasitoids Telenomus remus Nixon (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) and Trichogramma spp. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) are potential control agents for field use against these noctuids. We evaluated the parasitism efficiency, development, and flight capacity of an isofemale line and a regular line of T. remus, and 2 genetically variable populations of Trichogramma pretiosum Riley and Trichogramma atopovirilia Oatman and Platner (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) in these 4 members of the Spodoptera complex. All parasitoids were able to develop in the 4 hosts. The parasitoids showed good flight capacity, except for the regular line of T. remus. The Trichogramma species, despite having high viability and female:male sex ratios, showed poorer parasitism performances than T. remus. The regular T. remus line also showed good parasitism capacity and high viability but had a predominance of males. In general, the isofemale line of T. remus showed good rates of parasitism and flight capacity as well as a high viability and sex ratio, proving to be a potential candidate for an augmentative biological-control program for Spodoptera spp Guenée (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

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The widely distributed, polyphagous fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith, 1797), is one of the most important crop pests worldwide. The egg-parasitoid wasp, Telenomus remus Nixon, 1937, is frequently described as a possible control agent for S. frugiperda. We selected an isoline of T. remus and evaluated its parasitism potential (for 24 h) in S. frugiperda eggs, in laboratory conditions, and also its ability to fly at different temperatures and relative humidity levels, aiming to provide basic information about this isoline. The selected isoline maintained good flight capacity without affecting its parasitism efficiency or developing inefficient haplotypes for biological-control programs, compared across generations to a regularline laboratory-reared for more than 60 generations. The flight capacity of the isoline was best at 25-30 °C and relative humidity 70-90%.

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