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INTRODUCTION: Culicoides Latreille biting midges are vectors of high concern as they can transmit serious veterinary diseases such as bluetongue virus or epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus, among others. Little is known about these vectors in Galicia, so a comprehensive literature review and an intensive monitoring were carried out in the region. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The Autonomous Community of Galicia was sampled through three different vector surveillance projects between 2004 and 2023. A total of 239 sampling points were deployed alongside the Galician territory. In addition, a literature review of Culicoides in Galicia related content was made by consulting several digital repositories. RESULTS: A total of 33 species of Culicoides belonging to 8 subgenera were identified. Among them, 15 are considered or suspected to be potential vectors of several pathogens of medical and/or veterinary interest. In addition, 20 of them are reported for the first time in the region. Updated distribution maps of the Culicoides biting midges of Galicia were provided, including several notes regarding their ecology and relevance for both public health and animal welfare. CONCLUSIONS: The present work is one of the most complete works made at regional level in Spain to date. As Galicia's economy relies heavily on livestock farming, this work will provide a solid baseline in order to develop new research lines in the future regarding prevention to vector-borne diseases.

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OBJECTIVE: Aim: The article analyzes the health-saving technologies of Ukrainians in Eastern Galicia (the end of the XIX century - 1939). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Materials and Methods: In the investigation a number of scientific methods are used: chronological, historical, specific-search, content analysis, providing selection, analysis of the source base, allowing to identify general trends, directions of development, achievements and gaps in the movement for the health of children and adults in Galicia; sources of Ukrainian and Polish authors of different generations in the field of health protection and preservation, physical education and sports, education and upbringing were used, their views and research results were presented. CONCLUSION: Conclusions: A component of the health-saving philosophy of Ukrainians (children, youth and adults) of Eastern Galicia in the late XIX - 30s of the XX century was the idea of physical education. Through traveling and camping, playing sports, improving children, youth and adults in places of active recreation (≪dwellings,≫ ≪half-dwellings,≫ ≪cuttings,≫ etc.), the philosophy of health conservation took a leading position in the interwar period of the XX century. The physical education movement had particular successes when a wide circle of Ukrainian youth joined it. There was an original Plast method of physical education of a Ukrainian - physically, spiritually, morally, mentally healthy person, for whom health preservation is a way and philosophy of life, a vital need. All this actualizes the problem of health-oriented public initiatives, which should be creatively used in the current challenges in Ukraine.

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A study was carried out in 345 water ecosystems (rivers, streams, ditches, lagoons, ponds, puddles, rockpools, and artificial containers) throughout the autonomous community of Galicia (NW Spain) during different seasons between 2020 and 2023. The results revealed the first detections of Anopheles (Anopheles) petragnani Del Vechio, 1939 (n = 185) and Culex (Culex) mimeticus Noè, 1899 (n = 12) in the territory, allowing to update and expand the overall knowledge about their distribution and ecology. The breeding preferences of the species were analyzed considering habitat characteristics (land use, water body type, and degree of insolation), geographical variables (latitude, longitude, and altitude), and physical-chemical water parameters (temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, salinity, total dissolved solids, and turbidity). In addition, the relationship between the occurrence of these species and other mosquitoes present in the study area was discussed. Anopheles petragnani is widely distributed in the region and shows breeding preferences for water bodies of fluvial origin, forest environments, and shaded situations. Culex mimeticus was detected sporadically breeding in a pond and in a river in the south of the region, both in industrial and agricultural land uses, and always exposed to the sun. Although the presence of these species may not currently pose a health risk in the region, it is important not neglecting their study since the adequate characterization of their larval biotopes is relevant regarding vector surveillance and control measures.

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Despite the fact that the first red tide reported on the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula was due to Lingulodinium polyedra, knowledge about their frequency and, particularly, about the environmental conditions contributing to bloom initiation is still scarce. For this reason, L. polyedra bloom episodes were observed and studied in three Galician rias during the summer season based on the 1993-2008 record database period; additionally, samples were collected in summer 2008. Proliferations of L. polyedra occurred in the rias of Ares and Barqueiro in June and August, respectively, while in the Ria of Coruña, they persisted from the end of June to early September. Red tides developed when the surface temperature reached 17 °C, with "seasonal thermal window" conditions, and when salinities were ≥30, i.e., an "optimal salinity window"; when these parameters were lower than these thresholds, cyst germination decreased. A cyst transport mechanism from sediments to the surface must also exist; this mechanism was found to be natural (tidal currents) in the ria of Barqueiro or anthropogenic (dredging) in the rias of Ares and Coruña. Surface temperatures during summer were usually favorable for cyst germination (85 to 100%) during the 1993-2008 period; however, water temperatures below 10 m depth only rarely reached the 17 °C threshold (2 to 18%). During this 16-year period, dredging activities could explain 71% (Coruña) and 44% (Ares) of the recorded bloom events. When a bloom episode developed in early summer, favorable conditions did not lead to a new red tide, probably due to the lag period required by cysts for germination. Moreover, blooms did not develop when high densities of diatoms (>1,000,000 cells·L-1) remained in the water column as a result of summer upwelling pulses occurring in specific years. The temperature-sediment disturbance pattern found in this study provides a useful tool for the prevention of eventual risks resulting from red tides of this dinoflagellate.

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Plastic nurdles pose a significant environmental threat due to recurrent accidental spills into marine ecosystems. This report examines the nurdle pollution over the 1498 km of the Galician coastline (Spain) following the spill of 25 t of nurdles into the Northwest Atlantic after the loss of six containers from the Toconao vessel in December 2023. This accident highlights the urgent need for proactive, effective measures in maritime transport to prevent and mitigate such environmental catastrophes. The complexity of nurdle dispersion challenges the evaluation of their fate at sea, and the potential long-term consequences on the marine ecosystem and food web remain uncertain and yet to be investigated. This report also presents the VIEIRA collaborative and underscores the critical role of citizen-led initiatives in responding to such environmental disasters, and advocates for efficient policy reforms, involving cross-border collaboration. Furthermore, we call for greater international cooperation to underpin effective regulatory frameworks to address the growing hazard of plastic nurdle pollution worldwide.

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We have found 117 taxa of lichenicolous fungi in the studied area. In this paper, we describe five taxa: Arthonia boomiana on Nephromopsis chlorophylla, Lawalreea burgaziana on Platismatia glauca, Pronectria scrobiculatae on Lobarina scrobiculata, Trichonectria parmeliellae on Parmeliella testacea and Trichonectria rubefaciens ssp. cryptoramalinae on Ramalina. Furthermore, the next records are interesting chorologically from the Iberian Peninsula: Arthophacopsis parmeliarum, Catillaria lobariicola, Lichenopuccinia poeltii, Myxotrichum bicolor, Nanostictis christiansenii, Niesslia lobariae, Opegrpaha sphaerophoricola, Pronectria fragmospora, Rhymbocarpus aggregatus, R. neglectus, and Tremella cetrariicola.

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Galicia, located in the northwestern part of Spain, has a great number and variety of aquatic ecosystems where mosquitoes can breed. Despite the sanitary relevance of these insects, studies on mosquito populations in the region are still scarce. The field research was carried out in 48 sampling points (27 continental lagoons, 12 coastal lagoons and 9 temporary ponds) throughout the entire Galician territory. The samples were collected intermittently and seasonally through different water quality monitoring projects between 2001 and 2017. More than 1500 mosquito larvae belonging to 10 species of five genera (Aedes, Anopheles, Coquillettidia, Culex and Culiseta) were identified. Anopheles (Anopheles) maculipennis s.l. Meigen was the most widely distributed species in the study, being especially dominant in rural areas. In contrast, Culex (Culex) pipiens Linnaeus and Culex (Culex) theileri Theobald showed a preference for breeding in urban areas. New contributions to the knowledge about the larval ecology and distribution of these mosquito species are made throughout this study, including information about the tolerance of each species to water parameters (temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen and conductivity). Likewise, the relationship between culicid diversity and the habitat characteristics of the breeding sites (water body type, climate and level of anthropization) is discussed.

Galicia (NO España) presenta un gran número y variedad de ecosistemas acuáticos donde los mosquitos pueden criar. A pesar del interés sanitario de estos insectos, los estudios sobre las poblaciones de mosquitos en la región aún son escasos. El área de estudio se compone de 48 puntos de muestreo (27 lagunas continentales, 12 lagunas costeras y 9 charcas temporales) a lo largo de todo el territorio gallego. Las muestras fueron recogidas de forma intermitente y estacional mediante diferentes proyectos de monitoreo sobre la calidad del agua entre 2001 y 2017. Se identificaron más de 1500 larvas de mosquitos pertenecientes a diez especies y cinco géneros (Aedes, Anopheles, Coquillettidia, Culex y Culiseta). Anopheles (Anopheles) maculipennis s.l. Meigen fue la especie mejor representada en el estudio, siendo especialmente dominante en áreas rurales. Por el contrario, Culex (Culex) pipiens Linnaeus y Culex (Culex) theileri Theobald mostraron una preferencia por criar en áreas urbanas. A través del presente estudio se realizan nuevas contribuciones al conocimiento de la ecología y la distribución de diferentes especies de mosquitos, incluyéndose información sobre la tolerancia de cada una de las especies a parámetros del agua (temperatura, pH, oxígeno disuelto y conductividad). Así mismo, se discute la relación entre la diversidad de culícidos y las características de las zonas de cría (tipo de masa de agua, clima y nivel de antropización).

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Se presentan en este trabajo los orígenes del proceso que culminó en la creación de la empresa Zeltia S.A., buque insignia de la industria farmacéutica gallega. Sus antecedentes aparecen en la constitución formal en Vigo del Instituto Bio-Químico Miguel Servet, en abril de 1936, si bien el farmacéutico Rubira y el médico Obella habían estado trabajando en el proyecto al menos desde 1929. El levantamiento militar del 36 impacta directamente en las primeras etapas del laboratorio. Mientras unos socios se posicionan a favor del levantamiento, a otros les afectan seriamente las medidas represivas del nuevo régimen. En cualquier caso, entre unos y otros se establecen lazos de cooperación y se crean lealtades. Incluso, durante la Guerra Civil, se incorporan al laboratorio profesionales y técnicos represaliados por su ideología política. Finalizada la contienda, cuando las circunstancias predecían el comienzo de un periodo de mayor estabilidad para el desarrollo del negocio, se produce una grave crisis en el accionariado, relacionada en gran medida con la influencia que tenía en Vigo el colectivo alemán y la fractura social existente frente a los germanófilos. En estas circunstancias se fragmenta la sociedad. Rubira continua al frente del Servet, al que terminaría incorporándose el alemán Boehme, con el que ya compartía previamente otros negocios, mientras Obella buscaba nuevos socios, con mayor afinidad ideológica, para fundar Zeltia S.A. en agosto de 1939. (AU)

The origins of the process that culminated in the creation of the company Zeltia S.A., flagship of the Galician pharmaceutical industry, are presented in this paper. Its precedents appear in the formal constitution in Vigo of the Miguel Servet Biochemical Institute, in April 1936, although the pharmacist Rubira and the doctor Obella had been working on the project since at least 1929. The military uprising of 1936 had a direct impact on the early stages of the laboratory. While some partners are positioned in favor of the uprising, others are seriously affected by the repressive measures of the new regime. In any case, between one and the other, bonds of cooperation are established and loyalties are created. Even during the Civil War, professionals and technicians retaliated for their political ideology joined the laboratory. At the end of the fight, when the circumstances predicted the beginning of a period of greater stability for the development of the business, a serious crisis occurred in the shareholding, largely related to the influence that the German collective had in Vigo and the existing social fracture. against the Germanophiles. In these circumstances society is fragmented. Rubira continues to lead the Servetus, which the German Boehme would end up joining, with whom he had previously shared other businesses, while Obella was looking for new partners, with greater ideological affinity, to found Zeltia S.A. in August 1939. (AU)

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Specimens of Salmo trutta (n = 613) captured by local anglers in different rivers in Galicia (NW Spain) during the 2015 fishing season (15 March-15 August) were examined. In total 1479 adult helminths were recovered from the gastrointestinal tracts of 221 fish. Moreover, the microscopic observation of the sediments obtained, previous diphasic concentration, revealed the presence of helminth eggs in 485 trout specimens. The following species were identified by morphological and molecular analysis: Crepidostomum metoecus (8.97%) (Trematoda); Salmonema ephemeridarum (16.97%), Raphidascaris acus (9.46%) and Pseudocapillaria sp. (2.12%) (Nematoda); and Echinorhynchus truttae (8.48%) (Acanthocephala). The prevalence, mean intensity and mean abundance of each helminth species were determined in relation to size/age of the fish. The helminth infracommunity comprised a maximum of four species and the species richness was S = 5. The biological cycles of most of the helminth species recovered are dependent on benthic macroinvertebrate fauna, which, in turn, is influenced by the water quality. Therefore, any changes that take place in the aquatic ecosystem (due to anthropogenic activities or climate change) may be reflected in the helminth composition.

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Galicia is the most important fishing region in Spain. Nearly 50% of the volume of catches and of the national fishing fleet are concentrated in this region. During the Covid-19 pandemic, the fishing sector had the status of an essential sector and was not forced to stop its activity by the national Government. However, its economic performance has deteriorated in 2020. This article aims to analyze the impact of the pandemic on the extractive fishing sector in Galicia. For this purpose, the performance of the main economic and financial variables of the 246 companies that constitute this industry has been studied. The companies pertain to different extractive sectors (the national, offshore and large-scale fleets) and are in 9 different areas (Vigo, Pontevedra, Arousa, Muros, Fisterra, Costa da Morte, A Coruña-Ferrol, Cedeira and A Mariña). The results of the analysis show that the 9 fishing zones share a generalized negative trend but that there is heterogeneity in the results. Among the most determining factors are the predominant fleet extract, the target species caught, or the perception of public subsidies.

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Invasive species become established in non-native areas due to their intrinsic characteristics and the ability to adapt to new environments. This work describes the characteristics of the nesting behavior of the invasive yellow-legged hornet (Vespa velutina nigrithorax) in Galicia (Northwest Spain). The first nest was detected in the area in 2012 and after that, the distribution pattern shows a species-invasion curve with slow progress at first but followed by rapid expansion. The nesting places for this hornet differ between the kinds of nests, while embryo nests are mainly found in buildings in spring, secondary nests are observed in vegetation in summer, autumn, and winter. The annual life cycle starts when the queen builds the embryo nests and starts to lay eggs. This leads to the emergence of the first workers, usually small in size, and sometimes a few males. After this stage, large nests called secondary nests are normally observed in most exposed sites. Relocation nests can also be observed; these are nests in the first stage of development presenting adults insects but without brood or meconium. The period of decline is characterized by the emergence of new queens and males, that are distinguishable even in the pupal stage, the appearance of two eggs per cell, and an irregular brood pattern.

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The reproductive cycle of Diopatra neapolitana was studied over two years in Redondela (NW Spain), considering both the monthly evolution of the percentage of individuals with oocytes and the variation of the mean oocyte size. Moreover, since three other species of Diopatra have recently been documented in regions geographically close to NW Spain, we first confirmed the identity of this species by carrying out a morphological identification of a representative number of the specimens collected. Our data showed a discontinuous reproductive season, with a period of proliferation and maturation of oocytes from January to September and asynchronous spawning events between July and October. Then, a resting period in the months of November and December was observed. We also explored the influence of some relevant environmental factors (namely, water temperature, photoperiod, salinity, primary production and upwelling index) on the observed reproductive cycle. The results suggest that water temperature is one of the most important drivers of the reproductive cycle for this species. Particularly, in Ría de Vigo, the reproductive cycle seems to be influenced by upwelling events of deep cold water that occur frequently between March and September, and that could act as a spawning-inducing switch.

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The objective of this study was to determine the trace element composition and the toxic metal residues in Galician cow's milk cheese produced in different systems (artisan, industrial, and organic). Fourteen elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, I, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn) were determined in 58 representative samples of Galician cheeses by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The toxic elements were present at low concentrations, similar to those reported for other unpolluted geographical areas. The essential elements were also within the normal range in cheeses. There were no statistically significant differences between smoked and unsmoked cheeses for any of the elements. Chemometric analyses (principal component analysis and cluster analysis) revealed that the industrial cheeses produced in Galicia using the milk from intensive dairy farms were different, in terms of elemental content, from artisan and organic cheeses, in which the elemental contents were similar.

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La cocina gallega se caracteriza por su sencillez y por la alta calidad de las materias primas, tanto carnes como productos del mar. Galicia tiene una larga tradición marinera y de aprovechamiento de todo tipo de recursos marinos. También es muy importante la producción láctea y los productos agrícolas. Apenas se transforman las materias primas, lo que permite que se puedan disfrutaren toda su intensidad. La base fundamental de la mayoría de las recetas gallegas es la cocción. Los aditivos, adobos y especias no ocultan nunca las cualidades delos productos principales de los platos. Uno de los elementos más conocidos de la cocina gallega es el marisco, sobre todo en las zonas costeras. (AU)

Galician cuisine is characterized by its simplicity and the high quality of raw ingredients, a variety of meat and seafood. Galicia has a long seafaring tradition and the use of all kinds of marine resources. Dairy production and agricultural products are also very important. The raw foods are hardly transformed, which allows them to be enjoyed in all their intensity. The basis of most Galician recipes is boiling. Additives, marinades, and spices never hide the qualities of the main productsof the dishes. One of the best-known elements of Galician cuisine is seafood, especially in coastal areas. (AU)

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In this article, we present the dataset of mills from 1880 and 1920s-1930s in the area of the former Galicia (78,500 km2), now in Ukraine and Poland. The data was obtained as a result of manual vectorisation from 162 map sheets at scales of 1:115,200 and 1:100,000, according to the map legends. We found 4022 mill locations for 1880 and 3588 for the 1920s-1930s. We present them as vector points in shapefile, GML, GeoJSON, KML formats with attributes for seven types of mills for 1880 and ten types of mills for 1920s-1930s, and mills counted in a 10 km grid. The data can be used in economic, demographic and environmental reconstructions, e.g. to estimate historical anthropopressure related to settlement, agriculture and forestry. Mills are often associated with river structures such as floodgates, dams, and millraces and therefore they are a good example of human interference in river ecosystems. They can also be one criteria for identifying areas where the local population used traditional environmental knowledge. It can be useful for a contemporary assessment of the environment's suitability for devices using renewable energy sources. Finally, the data on the remains of former mills is suitable for the protection of cultural heritage sites that are technical monuments related to traditional food processing and industry.

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El Santo Hospital de Caridad nació en el Ferrol de finales del siglo XVIII, bajo los auspicios del gobierno municipal, con el fin de cubrir las necesidades asistenciales de una población en constante crecimiento, al amparo del desarrollo de sus arsenales. Su labor en materia hospitalaria se circunscribía, por lo general, a la población civil, siendo complementaria a la ofrecida a los aforados castrenses por el Real Hospital de Esteiro, dependiente de la Secretaría de Marina. A través del estudio de su rica documentación, se constata la relación existente entre la evolución de los ingresos y las dinámicas demográficas de la localidad, su carácter de centro de nivel medio en el contexto del noroeste peninsular o el indiscutible peso femenino en el conjunto general de asistidos. También, la información aportada por las fuentes muestra una estrecha vinculación entre la labor asistencial del centro y los sectores más desfavorecidos de la sociedad ferrolana, desde los denominados pobres de solemnidad hasta aquellos otros relacionados con las actividades artesanales, el servicio doméstico o los empleos de baja cualificación. A este respecto, llama poderosamente la atención, en el caso femenino, la utilización de este hospital como principal institución asistencial para las mujeres de los aforados castrenses, que quedaban al margen de la cobertura del Hospital de Esteiro. Asimismo, los excelentes registros ofrecen la posibilidad de medir el peso de los reingresos en el volumen general de asistencias, que no solían producirse en más de tres ocasiones, por causa de la intensa movilidad que caracterizaba a la capital de departamento (AU)

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Objective: the aim of this article is to reconstruct the history of the foundation of“Manicomio de Conxo”, an essential institution to understand the development of psychiatry inGalicia during the 19th century. Reconstruction was done by the analysis of the journals of thetime. Method: we searched in journals published between 1845 – 1890 in the digital archivesGaliciana and Biblioteca Nacional de España. Finally, a search of scientific articles was carriedout for the discussion of the results. Results: the findings indicate the project started in 1862, withthe propositions of the Condesa de Espoz y Mina and the governor of A Coruña. Finally, theSantiago sanatorium was inaugurated the 1st of July 1885, under the patronage of Arzobispo Payáy Rico.Conclusions: The non-existence of asylums and the expensive transfers justified thefoundation of a psychiatric institution in Galicia. During the second half of the 19th century, thepolitical and social instability influenced the paralysis and resumption of the project, and theHISTORIA53Cultura de los Cuidados. 1º Cuatrimestre 2022. Año XXVI. nº 62negotiations and discussions between different entities for a long time. The asylum was thereference for other institutions, despite its perpetual confinement and its private management.(AU)

Objetivo: reconstituir la historia de la fundación y apertura del Manicomio de Conxo,institución imprescindible para comprender el desarrollo de la psiquiatría gallega durante el sigloXIX, a través del análisis de la prensa profesional de la época. Método: búsqueda documentalpublicada entre 1845 y 1890 en las hemerotecas digitales Galiciana y Biblioteca Nacional deEspaña. Posteriormente, se realizó una pesquisa de artículos científicos para la discusión de losresultados. Resultados: Los hallazgos obtenidos fijan 1862 como fecha de partida del proyecto,con las propuestas de la Condesa de Espoz y Mina y el gobernador de A Coruña. Finalmente, el1 de julio de 1885 se inaugura el sanatorio santiagués, gracias al mecenazgo del Arzobispo Payáy Rico. Conclusiones: La ausencia de manicomios en el territorio gallego y los costosos trasladosjustificaban la fundación de una institución psiquiátrica en Galicia. La inestabilidad política ysocial durante la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, propició la paralización y reanudación delproyecto, negociaciones y discusiones entre diferentes entes y su prolongación en el tiempo. Elmanicomio fue centro de referencia para otras instituciones, a pesar de su carácter reclusorioperpetuo y su gestión privada.(AU)

Objetivo: reconstruir a história da fundação do “Manicomio de Conxo”, instituiçãoessencial para compreender o desenvolvimento da psiquiatria galega durante o século XIX,analisando os jornais da época. Método: pesquisa de artigos de jornais publicados entre 1845 e1890 nos arquivos do jornal digital Galiciana e na Biblioteca Nacional de España.Posteriormente, foi realizada uma pesquisa de artigos científicos para discussão dos resultados.Resultados: de acordo com os resultados, o projeto começou em 1862, com as propostas daCondessa de Espoz y Mina e do governador de A Coruña. Finalmente, em 1º de julho de 1885,foi inaugurado o sanatório Santiagués, graças ao patrocínio do Arcebispo Payá y Rico.Conclusões: a ausência de manicômios no território galego e as despesas de viagem justificarama fundação de uma instituição psiquiátrica na Galiza. A instabilidade política e social durante asegunda metade do século XIX levou à paralisação e retomada do projeto. As negociações ediscussões entre diferentes entidades foram estendidas ao longo do tempo. O manicômio era umcentro de referência para outras instituições, apesar de seu caráter perpétuo e de sua gestãoprivada.(AU)

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The COVID-19 crisis has had consequences in every area of the Spanish economy. The fisheries and shellfishing sectors in Galicia have been significantly affected due to the measures taken to curb the pandemic. In particular, the closure of the HORECA channel and the confinement of the population have adversely affected the production of fresh fish and shellfish. In this study, a three-stage analysis of the management of the pandemic in Spain has been carried out (confinement, "new normality" and closure of the HORECA channel). The direct and indirect effects of the pandemic have been considered, as well as other factors independent of it, which usually influence production. The results show a decrease in catches, revenue and average price (euros/kg) at first sale of Galician fish and shellfish products over the three study periods, with an incidence level that varies between phases, species, fleet segments and sectors.

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Gymnodimine A has been found in mollusks obtained along the whole northern coast of Spain from April 2017 to December 2019. This is the first time that this toxin is detected in mollusks from the Atlantic coast of Europe. The prevalence of the toxin was, in general, low, being detected on average in approximately 6% of the obtained samples (122 out of 1900). The concentrations recorded were also, in general, low, with a median of 1.3 µg kg-1, and a maximum value of 23.93 µg kg-1. The maxima of prevalence and concentration were not geographically coincident, taking place the first at the easternmost part of the sampled area and the second at the westernmost part. In most cases (>94%), gymnodimine A and 13-desmethyl spirolide C were concurrently detected, suggesting that Alexandrium ostenfeldii could be the responsible producer species. The existence of cases in which gymnodimine A was detected alone suggests also that a Karenia species could also be involved. The geographical heterogeneity of the distribution suggests that blooms of the producer species are mostly local. Not all bivalves are equally affected, clams being less affected than mussels, oysters, and razor clams. Due to their relatively low toxicity, and their low prevalence and concentration, it seems that these toxins do not pose an important risk for the mollusk consumers in the area.

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