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This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of four household slow sand filter (HSSF) models for the removal of microorganisms from river water throughout the development of their biological layers (schmutzdecke). Two models were designed to be operated continuously (HSSF-CC and HSSF-CT) and two intermittently (HSSF-ID and HSSF-IF). Filters were fed daily with 48 L pre-treated river water (24 h sedimentation followed by filtration through a non-woven synthetic blanket). Water samples were quantified by coliform group bacteria and analysed by bright field microscopy to visualize the microorganisms. Total coliform reduction was between 1.42 ± 0.59 log and 2.96 ± 0.58 log, with continuous models showing a better performance (p-values < 0.004). Escherichia coli reduction varied from 1.49 ± 0.58 log to 2.09 ± 0.66 log and HSSF-IF, HSSF-CC and HSSF-CT presented a similar performance (p-values > 0.06), slightly better than the one presented by HSSF-ID (p-value=0.04). Microorganisms, such as algae, protozoa and helminths were detected by microscopy in raw water and pre-treated water. Algae were the most significant group in these samples, although they were not visualized by bright field microscopy in the filtered water. Results showed the potential of HSSF in microbiological risk reduction from river water, which increases the range of point-of-use water treatments in rural communities. However, additional studies of the HSSF biological layer must be performed.

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This study evaluated the impact of a 50% reduction of filter media depth in Household Slow Sand Filters (HSSFs) on continuous flow to remove physicochemical and microbiological parameters from river water. Furthermore, simple pre-treatment and disinfection processes were evaluated as additional treatments. Two filter models with different filtration layer depths were evaluated: a traditional one with 50 cm media depth (T-HSSF) and a compact one (C-HSSF) with 25 cm. HSSFs were fed with pre-treated river water (24-h water sedimentation followed by synthetic fabric filtration) for 436 days at a constant filtration rate of 0.90 m3 m-2 day-1 with a daily production of 48 L day-1. Sodium hypochlorite (2.0 mg L-1 of NaOCl 2.5% for 30 min) was used to disinfect the filtered water. Water samples were analysed weekly for parameters such as turbidity, organic matter, colour and E. coli, among others. Removal of protozoan cysts and oocysts by the HSSFs were also evaluated. After pretreatment, turbidity from the HSSF river water was reduced to 13.2 ± 14.6 NTU, allowing the filters to operate. Statistical analysis indicated no significant difference (p > 0.05) between T-HSSF and C-HSSF efficiencies in all evaluated parameters throughout operation time. Hence, media depth reduction did not hinder continuous HSSF performance for almost all the evaluated parameters. However, it may have affected Giardia cysts retaining, which passed through the thinner media on one evaluation day. Disinfection was effective in reducing remaining bacteria from filtered water; however, it was ineffective to inactivate protozoa. The reduction in the filtration layer did not affect the overall filtered water quality or quantity showing that a compact HSSF model may be a viable option for decentralized water treatment.

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Household slow sand filter (HSSF) performance in continuous and intermittent flows was evaluated when influent water was treated with a natural coagulant extracted from Opuntia cochenillifera. The water under study, used as influent, had a turbidity of 111 ± 17.3 NTU. When clarifying the water with O. cochenillifera, the best condition obtained was 30  mg L-1 in natural pH (without correction), generating clarified water with turbidity satisfactory to filters operation (7.83 ± 2.32 NTU). The results indicated a better performance of continuous flow HSSF in turbidity removal (79.2% ± 8.39%) and higher efficiency of intermittent flow HSSF in the removal of E. coli (2.86 log ± 0.79 log for 12  h pause period and 2.41 log ± 0.42 log for 4  h pause period). For the sake of comparison, the evaluated HSSFs had the same production (60 L day-1). The impact on the interruption of the 96-h feed into the HSSFs was analysed and the results indicated a significant change in the quality of the filtered water after resuming the operation. This fragility of technology must be considered when it is implemented as lack of water can be a reality in the target communities. Acute toxicological assays with C. xanthus larvae showed no toxicity for pretreated and filtered water; however, more testing should be performed.

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ABSTRACT Constructed wetlands might be an alternative for communities away from urban centers and not served by a domestic wastewater treatment system. The purpose of this study was to provide instructions for the implementation of subsurface flow constructed wetland systems. To that end, we gathered information regarding the construction aspect, plants, and operational parameters used in systems which already operate in the country and the respective efficiency of these sets after previous treatment. The system in real scale proposed by Oliveira et al. (2005) was prominent among those that presented the highest efficiency. It was preceded by upflow anaerobic reactor built in brick, with macrophyte of the Typha genre, crushed stone at the entry and exit of the system, and sand in its intermediate portion. It required 1.04 m² surface area per inhabitant in humid temperate climate and hot summer, 1.71 m³ d-1 flow, and one-day hydraulic detention. The considerations presented here might help the construction of this kind of system, regarding dimensional and operational criteria.

RESUMO As wetlands construídas podem ser uma alternativa para comunidades afastadas de centros urbanos que não são atendidas por rede de tratamento de esgoto. Visando à orientação para implantação do sistema de wetlands construídas de fluxo subsuperficial, foi levantada uma série de informações a respeito dos aspectos construtivos, das plantas e parâmetros operacionais utilizados em sistemas já em funcionamento no país e a respectiva eficiência do conjunto, após um tratamento precedente. Entre os sistemas que apresentaram melhor eficiência, destacou-se o de Oliveira et al. (2005) em escala real, precedido por reator anaeróbio de fluxo ascendente, construído em alvenaria, com a macrófita do gênero Typha, brita na entrada e saída do sistema e areia na parte intermediária, com uma área superficial de 1,04 m2 por habitante de clima temperado úmido com verão quente, vazão de 1,71 m3 d-1 e tempo de detenção hidráulica de um dia. A elaboração das considerações apresentadas neste trabalho pode auxiliar na construção desse tipo de sistema, construído nos critérios de dimensionamento e operação.

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Water shortage is a current problem faced by many regions. The deterioration of water bodies driven by the directly discard of untreated wastewater worsens the water shortage and implies in more costly treatments to meet local standards for water quality. In rural areas, the problem is even worse, once conventional centralized treatment plants do not encompass them. Decentralized treatment systems must present low-cost, local availability, standards-meeting efficiency, and simplified operation. The present study examines the combined use of algae turf scrubber and down-flow vertical constructed wetlands for a University's sanitary wastewater treatment. After a hydraulic detention time of 21 days, the unit was able to reach 49%, 48%, 98%, 82%, 99.2%, 70.1%, 44%, 83%, 72%, 86%, 69%, 95%, and 99.9% for conductivity, total soluble solids, turbidity, apparent color, N-NH3, total nitrogen, P-soluble, total carbon, chemical oxygen demand, inorganic carbon, TOC, Escherichia coli, and total coliforms. In accord to the Brazilian standard ABNT 13969/97, the treated effluent is eligible for reuse in floor and sidewalks washing, garden irrigation, and landscaping purposes.

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RESUMO O objetivo do presente trabalho é propor uma nova configuração de reatores Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) para utilização no tratamento unifamiliar, sendo menores e mais eficientes do que o tradicional tanque séptico. O sistema experimental foi projetado em escala piloto, constituindo-se de oito reatores UASB de 250 L cada. Seis dessas unidades são modificadas, mas mantêm o conceito e os princípios dos reatores UASB convencionais; no entanto, foram projetados com geometria diferenciada, alternando-se as zonas de sedimentação e digestão. Comparativamente a esses reatores, foram operados um reator UASB-Y e um UASB convencional. Todos os reatores foram capazes de digerir esgoto bruto de forma eficiente em tempos de detenção hidráulica de 12 e 6 horas. Foram obtidas eficiências de remoção do material orgânico de 67 a 74%. A análise de variância (ANOVA) mostrou que não houve diferença significativa entre as eficiências obtidas nos diferentes reatores. Uma elevada concentração de lodo foi retida na zona de digestão, obtendo-se, assim, elevada capacidade de tratamento. Os ensaios de sedimentação mostraram que as constantes de sedimentação obtidas para o lodo do reator são melhores que as obtidas para o lodo expulso juntamente com o efluente. Em contrapartida, as atividades metanogênicas dos lodos do reator e expulso não diferem significativamente.

ABSTRACT The aim of this work is to propose a new configuration UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket) for use in single-family treatment, which is smaller and more efficient than the traditional septic tank (TS). The experimental system was designed on a pilot scale, consisting of eight reactors UASB 250 L each. Six of these units are modified, but keep the concept and principles of conventional UASB reactors; they were, however, designed with different geometry, alternating zones of sedimentation and digestion. Compared to these reactors, an UASB reactor-Y and a conventional UASB were operated. All reactors were able to digest raw sewage efficiently in hydraulic retention times (HRT) of 24:06 hours. Organic material removal efficiencies of 67-74% were obtained. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed no significant difference between the efficiencies obtained in the different reactors. A high sludge concentration was retained in the digestion zone, thus yielding, high capacity treatment. Sedimentation tests have shown that the constants obtained for the sedimentation sludge reactor are better than those obtained for the sludge which is expelled with the effluent. In contrast, sludge methanogenic activity of the reactor and expelled sludge is not significantly different.