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Illusions are important 'tools' in the study of perceptual processes. Their conception is typically linked to the notion of veridicality in a dual-world framework, in which we either see the macro physical world as it is (ecological approaches) or we derive a faithful representation (cognitive approaches) of it. Within such theoretical views, illusions are errors caused by inadequate sensory information (because of poor quality, insufficient quantity, contradictory, etc.). From a phenomenological stance, however, experiencing an illusion does not relate to the physical quality of the distal or proximal stimulus; rather, it depends on a comparison between the actual perception and what one believes should be perceived given the knowledge s/he has gained about the physical stimulus. Within such a framework, illusions are still considered of extreme importance in the study of the processes underpinning perception, but they are not conceived as errors. They represent instead a cognitive clash between actual perception and hypothesized perception based on some sort of comparison, thus also showing their potential as a tool for studying the underpinnings of cognitive processes.

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Embodied cognition-the idea that mental states and processes should be understood in relation to one's bodily constitution and interactions with the world-remains a controversial topic within cognitive science. Recently, however, increasing interest in predictive processing theories among proponents and critics of embodiment alike has raised hopes of a reconciliation. This article sets out to appraise the unificatory potential of predictive processing, focusing in particular on embodied formulations of active inference. Our analysis suggests that most active-inference accounts invoke weak, potentially trivial conceptions of embodiment; those making stronger claims do so independently of the theoretical commitments of the active-inference framework. We argue that a more compelling version of embodied active inference can be motivated by adopting a diachronic perspective on the way rhythmic physiological activity shapes neural development in utero. According to this visceral afferent training hypothesis, early-emerging physiological processes are essential not only for supporting the biophysical development of neural structures but also for configuring the cognitive architecture those structures entail. Focusing in particular on the cardiovascular system, we propose three candidate mechanisms through which visceral afferent training might operate: (a) activity-dependent neuronal development, (b) periodic signal modeling, and (c) oscillatory network coordination.

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Introduction: As China's digital transformation index continues to climb and market openness increases, the active implementation of open innovation embedded in digital innovation eco-networks is key to implementing sustainable innovation-driven strategies. The widespread use of digital technologies has broken through the traditional closed boundaries of enterprises and enhanced technology exchange, information communication and R&D collaboration with other innovation agents.However, many enterprises' digital empowerment efforts only stay at the level of digital technology, but do not rise to the level of corporate strategy. How to comprehensively promote the change of enterprise digital empowerment and help enterprises build a sustainable open innovation ecosystem needs further research. Methods: This article uses the structure equation model and the necessary condition analysis methods to combine the stimulus-organization-reaction (SOR) theory to analyze the conduction mechanism of digital authorization to open innovation from a cognitive perspective. Results: (1) In the era of digital economy, digital empowerment emphasizes the initiative and adaptability of enterprises, and explores a sustainable digital road suitable for enterprises themselves; (2) Organizational emotional ability and organizational disordered atmosphere play a mediating role between digital empowerment and open innovation, but organizational emotional ability has a positive impact on open innovation, while organizational disordered atmosphere is the opposite. (3) Organizational identity positively regulates the relationship between the disordered atmosphere and open innovation. Discussion: The development of digital technology has adapted deviations with traditional management models. Organizing the investment in digital construction should also pay attention to the digital training and digital thinking of organizational members.Organizations should provide organizational support through various channels, enhance employees' organizational commitments to create a relationship -shaped psychological contract, regularly carry out digital education and organizational culture, reduce the differential atmosphere between teams, enhance the team's awareness of cooperation and trust in the teamAnd overall consciousness.

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What kinds of impacts can visual art have on a viewer? To identify potential art impacts, we recruited five aesthetics experts from different academic disciplines: art history, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology and theology. Together, the group curated a set of terms that corresponded to descriptive features (124 terms) and cognitive-affective impacts (69 terms) of artworks. Using these terms as prompts, participants (n = 899) were given one minute to generate words for each term related to how an artwork looked (descriptive features) or made them think or feel (cognitive-affective impacts). Using network psychometric approaches, we identified terms that were semantically similar based on participants' responses and applied hierarchical exploratory graph analysis to map the relationships between the terms. Our analyses identified 17 descriptive dimensions, which could be further reduced to 5, and 11 impact dimensions, which could be further reduced to 4. The resulting taxonomy demonstrated overlap between the descriptive and impact networks as well as consistency with empirical evidence. This taxonomy could serve as the foundation to empirically evaluate art's impacts on viewers.

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The author has thought about working memory, not always by that name, since 1969 and has conducted research on its infant and child development since the same year that the seminal work of Baddeley and Hitch (1974) was published. The present article assesses how the field of working memory development has been influenced since those years by major theoretical perspectives: empiricism (along with behaviorism), nativism (along with modularity), cognitivism (along with constructivism), and dynamic systems theory. The field has not fully discussed the point that these theoretical perspectives have helped to shape different kinds of proposed working memory systems, which in turn have deeply influenced what is researched and how it is researched. Here I discuss that mapping of theoretical viewpoints onto assumptions about working memory and trace the influence of this mapping on the field of working memory development. I illustrate where these influences have led in my own developmental research program over the years.

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Drawing from both enactivist and cognitivist perspectives on mind, I propose that explaining teleological phenomena may require reappraising both "Cartesian theaters" and mental homunculi in terms of embodied self-models (ESMs), understood as body maps with agentic properties, functioning as predictive-memory systems and cybernetic controllers. Quasi-homuncular ESMs are suggested to constitute a major organizing principle for neural architectures due to their initial and ongoing significance for solutions to inference problems in cognitive (and affective) development. Embodied experiences provide foundational lessons in learning curriculums in which agents explore increasingly challenging problem spaces, so answering an unresolved question in Bayesian cognitive science: what are biologically plausible mechanisms for equipping learners with sufficiently powerful inductive biases to adequately constrain inference spaces? Drawing on models from neurophysiology, psychology, and developmental robotics, I describe how embodiment provides fundamental sources of empirical priors (as reliably learnable posterior expectations). If ESMs play this kind of foundational role in cognitive development, then bidirectional linkages will be found between all sensory modalities and frontal-parietal control hierarchies, so infusing all senses with somatic-motoric properties, thereby structuring all perception by relevant affordances, so solving frame problems for embodied agents. Drawing upon the Free Energy Principle and Active Inference framework, I describe a particular mechanism for intentional action selection via consciously imagined (and explicitly represented) goal realization, where contrasts between desired and present states influence ongoing policy selection via predictive coding mechanisms and backward-chained imaginings (as self-realizing predictions). This embodied developmental legacy suggests a mechanism by which imaginings can be intentionally shaped by (internalized) partially-expressed motor acts, so providing means of agentic control for attention, working memory, imagination, and behavior. I further describe the nature(s) of mental causation and self-control, and also provide an account of readiness potentials in Libet paradigms wherein conscious intentions shape causal streams leading to enaction. Finally, I provide neurophenomenological handlings of prototypical qualia including pleasure, pain, and desire in terms of self-annihilating free energy gradients via quasi-synesthetic interoceptive active inference. In brief, this manuscript is intended to illustrate how radically embodied minds may create foundations for intelligence (as capacity for learning and inference), consciousness (as somatically-grounded self-world modeling), and will (as deployment of predictive models for enacting valued goals).

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OBJECTIVE: To report the development and initial testing of a questionnaire designed to assess the concept of learning alignment within chiropractic college courses. METHODS: A 36-item questionnaire, Educator's Learning Alignment Instrument (ELAI), was created to evaluate how learning goals, course activities, and assessments align within a college course. Questionnaire development was informed by learning theories and tested using a 2-phased electronic survey mechanism among a chiropractic college faculty. Phase 1 included completing the ELAI for a currently implemented course. Phase 2 included questions about confidential reports generated from ELAI data. RESULTS: Thirty-one of 46 (67%) respondents completed an ELAI. Twelve (38%) participated in phase 2. Twenty-one (68%) courses demonstrated consistent learning focus across goals, activities, and assessments. Aggregate data from early, middle, and late chiropractic program courses revealed progressive shifts toward higher-level learning. Eighty-seven percent of courses contained 1 or more individual learning areas with potentially misaligned goals, activities, or assessment. Ninety-seven percent of respondents completed ELAI questions within 20 minutes. Most (87%) phase 2 respondents noted the report accurately reflected the course. Sixty-seven percent of phase 2 respondents agreed that confidential reports provided useful information to inform course design. CONCLUSION: The ELAI is a nonburdensome instrument that can facilitate faculty reflection on how aligned learning concepts are applied in a course and provide novel data to assess general learning focus within college courses and within programs. Results indicate ELAI questions can be revised to improve clarity. Additional research comparing ELAI responses from experts, peer educators, and students is recommended.

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Este artigo tem como objetivo investigar a relação entre autismo e memória, tomando como referência as teses do filósofo francês Henri Bergson, em interlocução com o paradigma cognitivista e o campo das neurociências. A partir da perspectiva bergsoniana, defendemos haver no autismo uma dissociação precoce entre memória e ação corporal, levando à dificuldade em usar as experiências passadas para iluminar a situação atual. A memória autista, sem a bússola pragmática, vaga sem função precisa, resultando ora na incapacidade do sujeito em se localizar nos contextos e em sua própria história, ora em prodígios mnêmicos pouco úteis para a autonomia e a vida social. O autismo pode, portanto, ser entendido como transtorno da memória pragmática ou perturbação da atenção à vida, afetando a capacidade dos indivíduos de responder criativamente aos obstáculos do cotidiano.

This article aims to investigate the relationship between autism and memory, taking as reference the theses of French philosopher Henri Bergson, in interlocution with the cognitivist paradigm and the field of neurosciences. Based on Bergson's perspective, we argue that autism features an early dissociation between memory and bodily action, making it difficult to use past experiences to solve a current situation. The autistic memory, without the pragmatic compass, wanders without a precise function, sometimes resulting in the subject's inability to locate himself in contexts and in his own history, and sometimes in mnemonic prodigies that are not very useful for autonomy and social life. Autism may therefore be understood as a pragmatic memory disorder or disturbance of attention to life, affecting the individuals' ability to respond creatively to everyday obstacles.

Cet article vise à étudier la relation entre autisme et mémoire, en prenant comme référence les thèses du philosophe français Henri Bergson, en interlocution avec le paradigme cognitif et le domaine des neurosciences. Du point de vue bergsonien, nous soutenons que dans l'autisme il y a une dissociation précoce entre la mémoire et l'action corporelle, ce qui conduit à la difficulté d'utiliser les expériences passées pour éclairer la situation actuelle. La mémoire autistique, sans boussole pragmatique, vague sans fonction précise, entraînant parfois l'incapacité du sujet à se situer dans des contextes et dans sa propre histoire, et parfois des prodiges mnésiques peu utiles à l'autonomie et à la vie sociale. L'autisme peut donc être compris comme un trouble de la mémoire pragmatique ou comme perturbation de l'attention à la vie, affectant la capacité des individus à répondre de manière créative aux obstacles quotidiens.

Este artículo tiene como objetivo investigar la relación entre el autismo y la memoria, tomando como referencia las tesis del filósofo francés Henri Bergson, en interlocución con el paradigma cognitivista y el campo de las neurociencias. Desde la perspectiva bergsoniana, sostenemos que hay, en el autismo, una disociación temprana entre la memoria y la acción corporal, lo que dificulta el uso de experiencias pasadas para iluminar la situación actual. La memoria autista, sin la brújula pragmática, deambula sin una función precisa, lo que a veces resulta en la incapacidad del sujeto para ubicarse en contextos y en su propia historia, a veces en prodigios mnémicos que no son muy útiles para la autonomía y la vida social. El autismo, por lo tanto, puede entenderse como un trastorno de la memoria pragmática o como una alteración de la atención a la vida, que afecta la capacidad de las personas para responder creativamente a los obstáculos cotidianos.

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The current novel coronavirus, COVID-19, has effected a significant change in the way industry-based and tertiary health professions education (HPE) can occur. Advice for strict, widespread social distancing has catalysed the transformation of course delivery into fully online design across nations. This is problematic for HPE, which has traditionally relied on face-to-face learner interaction, in the form of skills laboratories, simulation training and industry-based clinical placements. The transition to online-only course delivery has brought with it a need to address particular issues regarding the construction and delivery of quality curricula and education activities. It is in this context that regional, rural and remote health professionals and academics can provide invaluable insights into the use of technology to overcome the tyranny of distance, promote high-quality online HPE and enable the ongoing development of communities of practice. This article is the first in a series addressing the risks and opportunities in the current transition to online HPE, providing practical solutions for educators who are now unable to embrace more traditional face-to-face HPE delivery methods and activities.

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Professional and tertiary health professions education (HPE) has been markedly challenged by the current novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Mandates for training organisations to reduce social contact during the global pandemic, and make learning available online, provide an opportunity for regional, rural and remote clinicians and students to more easily access learning and professional development opportunities. Online lectures, while posing an opportunity for regional, rural and remote HPE, entail potential risks. Educators who are familiar with face-to-face pedagogies may find a transition to remote, digital interaction unfamiliar, disarming, and therefore they may not design maximally engaging lectures. The strategies used in a face-to-face lecture cannot be directly transferred into the online environment. This article proposes strategies to ensure the ongoing effectiveness, efficiency and engagement of lectures transitioning from face-to-face to online delivery. Cognitive learning theory, strategies to promote learner engagement and minimise distraction, and examples of software affordances to support active learning during the lecture are proposed. This enables lecturers to navigate the challenges of lecturing in an online environment and plan fruitful online lectures during this disruptive time. These suggestions will therefore enable HPE to better meet the existing and future needs of regional, rural and remote learners who may not be able to easily access face-to-face learning upon the relaxation of social distancing measures. Strategies to provide equitable HPE to learners who cannot access plentiful, fast internet are also discussed.

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Resumen El enfoque postracionalista de Vittorio Guidano en psicología intenta superar la forma en que el objetivismo cartesiano concibe la relación entre sujeto y realidad dentro del paradigma cognitivo tradicional. Esta teoría debe buena parte de su concepto fundamental - la identidad personal como organización cognoscente - al constructivismo de Humberto Maturana. Sin embargo, a pesar de la estrecha conexión, la relación conceptual entre ambos enfoques se mantiene obscura. Este artículo examina en detalle la relación entre el postracionalismo de Vittorio Guidano y el constructivismo de Humberto Maturana en torno al análisis del concepto de identidad personal para así clarificar sus coincidencias y divergencias.

Abstract The Postrationalist theory in psychology emerges attempting to overcome the manner in which Cartesian objectivism conceptualizes the relationship between subject and reality within the traditional cognitive paradigm. This theory is in large part due to its most fundamental concept -personal identity as a knowing organization- by Humberto Maturana's Constructivism. In spite of the close connection, the conceptual relationship between these two approaches remains obscure. This article examines in detail the relationship between Vittorio Guidano's postrationalism and Humberto Maturana's constructivism -focusing on the concept of personal identity- in order to clarify coincidences and conceptual divergences.

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Resumen En este artículo expongo una posible polisemia que se puede observar entre los defensores del naturalismo científico, pues si bien filósofos como Quine, Dennett y Giere comparten el espíritu original de la epistemología naturalizada bajo la definición que denominaré D1: "el éxito de la epistemología depende de la manera en que se logren reducir o reemplazar sus problemas por la ciencia", el tratamiento que cada uno de estos filósofos ofrece de la epistemología naturalizada se aparta de esta definición primigenia, pues cada quien privilegia ciertos enfoques que no serían aceptables por los demás, ni se acomodan de igual manera a lo que plantea D1. Así que, a pesar de que los tres acepten la tesis de que la nueva epistemología debe excluir el discurso metafísico que ha dominado la epistemología tradicional y sustituirlo por proyectos netamente científicos, el tratamiento que cada uno por separado le da a esta tesis tiene implicaciones que los otros partidarios del naturalismo encontrarían indefendibles.

Abstract In this article I present a possible polysemy that can be observed among the defenders of scientific naturalism, for although philosophers such as Quine, Dennett, and Giere share the original spirit of naturalized epistemology under the definition I will call (D1): the success of epistemology depends on how its problems can be reduced or replaced by science, the treatment that each of these philosophers offers of naturalized epistemology departs from this primitive definition, since each one privileges certain approaches that would not be acceptable to others, nor are those approaches adjusted in the same way to what D1 posits. So, although the three accept the thesis that the new epistemology must exclude the metaphysical discourse that has dominated traditional epistemology and substitute it for purely scientific projects, the treatment that each one separately gives to this thesis has implications that other supporters of naturalism would find it indefensible.

Resumo Neste artigo apresento uma possível polissemia que pode-se observar entre os defensores do naturalismo científico, pois mesmo que filósofos como Quine, Dennett e Giere compartilham o espírito original da epistemologia naturalizada sob a definição que denominarei D1: "o sucesso da epistemologia depende da maneira como consigam-se reduzir ou substituir seus problemas pela ciência", o tratamento que cada um destes filósofos oferece da epistemologia naturalizada fica longe desta definição primigènia, pois cada quem privilegia certos enfoques que não seriam aceitáveis pelos demais, nem se acomodam de igual maneira no que planteia D1. Assim que, a pesar que os três aceitem a tese que a nova epistemologia deve excluir o discurso metafísico que tem dominado a epistemologia tradicional e substituir ele por proj etos nitidamente científicos, o tratamento que cada um individualmente dá-lhe nesta tese tem implicações que os outros partidários do naturalismo encontrariam indefensáveis.

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Resumo Uma crítica comum encontrada em manuais e livros didáticos de psicologia é que a análise do comportamento não seria capaz de explicar fenômenos psicológicos complexos. Estes seriam melhor abordados por explicações cognitivistas baseadas em mecanismos internos ao organismo. Este ensaio tem como objetivo avaliar a pertinência dessa crítica à luz de exemplos da literatura analítico-comportamental. A partir da análise de pesquisas que tratam de formação de self, insight e linguagem, argumenta-se que a "complexidade" foi importada para os laboratórios de análise do comportamento, assim como floresceu em diversas linhas de pesquisa de tradição behaviorista radical. Em adição, são discutidos cinco significados possíveis dados à "complexidade" extraídos da literatura consultada. Conclui-se que não há significado útil do termo e que, por essa razão, talvez seja pertinente abandoná-lo como critério de classificação de comportamentos. Como consequência, "comportamento complexo" seria simplesmente "comportamento" e nada mais.

Résumé Une critique généralement trouvée dans les manuels et les livres de psychologie est que l'analyse de comportement ne serait pas capable d'expliquer les phénomènes psychologiques complexes. Ceux-ci seraient mieux abordées par des explications cognitives basées sur des mécanismes internes à l'organisme. Cet article vise à discuter la pertinence de cette critique à la lumière d'exemples de la littérature sur l'analyse de comportement. En analysant la recherche sur la formation du "self", "Insight" et du langage, on soutient que la "complexité" a été importé pour les laboratoires d'analyse comportementale, mais a aussi prospéré dans des nombreux domaines de recherche de la tradition béhavioriste radical. En outre, cinq significations possibles de "complexité" extraites de la littérature consultée sont discutés. On conclut qu'il n'y a pas de sens utile à ce terme et que, par conséquent, il peut être abandonné en tant que critère de classification des comportements. En conséquence, "comportement complexe" serait tout simplement "comportement" et rien de plus.

Resumen Una de las críticas a la Análisis de la Conducta, que se encuentran en los manuales y libros didácticos de psicología, es que esta no sería capaz de explicar los fenómenos psicológicos complejos. Estos serían mejor abordados por las explicaciones cognitivas basadas en los mecanismos internos del organismo. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo evaluar la relevancia de esta crítica a la luz de ejemplos de la literatura. A partir de investigaciones acerca del "self", "insight" y lenguaje, se argumenta que se importó la "complejidad" tanto para los laboratorios de análisis del comportamiento, como también floreció en varias líneas de investigación en la tradición conductista radical. Además, se discuten cinco posibles significados al término "complejidad". Llegamos a la conclusión de que no hay un significado útil y que, por esto, se puede abandonarlo como criterio de clasificación de comportamientos. Como resultado, "comportamiento complejo" haría simplemente "comportamiento" y nada más.

Abstract A criticism usually found in Psychology textbooks and manuals is that Behavior Analysis would not be able to explain complex psychological phenomena. These would be better approached by cognitivist explanations based on mechanisms internal to the organism. This study aims to discuss the relevance of this criticism in light of examples gathered from behavior-analytic literature. By analyzing researches about the formation of "self", "insight" and language, we argue that "complexity" was imported to behavior-analytic laboratories as well as it flourished in numerous fields of research of radical behaviorism tradition. Additionally, five meanings of "complexity" extracted from the consulted literature are discussed. It is concluded that there is no useful meaning to this term and, for that reason, it can be abandoned as a criterion for classifying behaviors. As a consequence, "complex behavior" should be viewed only as "behavior" and nothing else.

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The concept of embodied cognition attracts enormous interest but neither is the concept particularly well-defined nor is the related research guided by systematic theorizing. To improve this situation the theory of event coding (TEC) is suggested as a suitable theoretical framework for theorizing about cognitive embodiment-which, however, presupposes giving up the anti-cognitivistic attitude inherent in many embodiment approaches. The article discusses the embodiment-related potential of TEC, and the way and degree to which it addresses Wilson's (2002) six meanings of the embodiment concept. In particular, it is discussed how TEC considers human cognition to be situated, distributed, and body-based, how it deals with time pressure, how it delegates work to the environment, and in which sense it subserves action.

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Este artigo encontra-se estruturado basicamente em três partes. Na primeira, contextualizamos as concepções de Vittorio Guidano face às correntes psicoterapêuticas do século XX, nomeadamente quanto ao comportamentalismo, ao cognitivismo e ao construtivismo. Fazemos notar que as várias tendências da psicoterapia dessa época se autorrotulavam a partir de conceitos advindos de outras áreas, sem terem o cuidado de indagar sobre os fundamentos epistemológicos nos quais elas se alicerçavam. Num segundo momento detemo-nos no embasamento epistemológico de sua teoria e metodologia psicoterapêuticas, focalizando-nos no papel que o cognitivismo cibernético teve no seu pensamento (nomeadamente, quanto à questão da observação), bem como na teoria biológica da autopoiesis, na qual nosso autor explicitamente se inspirou. Por fim, nos debruçamos com algum pormenor sobre o seu modelo sobre o conhecimento e experiência humana, que se traduz numa nova teoria da personalidade (organização pessoal, noção de si mesmo) e um novo sistema psicoterapêutico que enfatiza o papel do vínculo afetivo como modelador da identidade pessoal.

This article is structured in three parts. At first, we contextualize the concepts of Vittorio Guidano in relation to psychotherapeutic currents of the twentieth century, particularly regarding behaviorism, cognitivism constructivism and others. We note that the various trends of psychotherapy labeled themselves according to concepts coming from other areas of study, without regard to their epistemological origins. Secondly we reflect on the epistemological foundation of Guidano's theory and psychotherapeutic methodology, focusing on the role that cyber cognitivism had in his thinking (namely, the question of observation, and self-observation), as well as the biological theory of autopoiesis, in which our author explicitly inspired himself. Finally, we center our attention on his model of knowledge and human experience that translates into a new theory of personality (regarding personal organization, as well as the notion of the self) and into a new system, that emphasizes the psychotherapeutic role of bonding in shaping personal identity.

Este artículo se estructura básicamente en tres partes. Al principio, contextualizamos los conceptos de Vittorio Guidano con respecto a las corrientes psicoterapéuticas del siglo XX, sobre todo en relación con el comportalismo, el cognitivismo y el constructivismo. Tomamos nota de que las diversas tendencias de la psicoterapia en ese momento si se llamaban a sí mismos nombres provenientes de conceptos otras áreas, sin la precaución de preguntar acerca de las bases epistemológicas sobre la que se fundaban. En segundo lugar estamos reflejando el fundamento epistemológico de su teoría y metodología psicoterapéutica, centradas en el papel que el cognitivismo cibernético tenía en su mente (es decir, la cuestión de la observación), así como en la teoría biológica de la autopoiesis, en ella que nuestro autor se ha inspirado explícitamente Finalmente, nos detenemos en algunos detalles sobre su modelo en el conocimiento y la experiencia humana, que se traduce en una nueva teoría de la personalidad (organización personal, la noción del yo) y un nuevo sistema que destaca en psicoterapia el papel de la vinculación en la unión y en la formación de la identidad personal.

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Although a visual illusion is often viewed as an amusing trick, for the vision scientist it is a question that demands an answer, which leads to even more questioning. All researchers hold their own chain of questions, the links of which depend on the very theory they adhere to. Perceptual theories are devoted to answering questions concerning sensation and perception, but in doing so they shape concepts such as reality and representation, which necessarily affect the concept of illusion. Here we consider the macroscopic aspects of such concepts in vision sciences from three classic viewpoints-Ecological, Cognitive, Gestalt approaches-as we see this a starting point to understand in which terms illusions can become a tool in the hand of the neuroscientist. In fact, illusions can be effective tools in studying the brain in reference to perception and also to cognition in a much broader sense. A theoretical debate is, however, mandatory, in particular with regards to concepts such as veridicality and representation. Whether a perceptual outcome is considered as veridical or illusory (and, consequently, whether a class of phenomena should be classified as perceptual illusions or not) depends on the meaning of such concepts.

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Medical education of today continues to evolve to meet the challenges of the stakeholders. Medical professionals today are expected to play multiple roles besides being experts. Thus, the curriculum has to be developed in a manner that facilitates learners to achieve the intended goal of becoming a medical professional with multiple competencies. The understanding of learning theories will be helpful in designing and delivering the curriculum to meet the demands of producing a medical professional who would meet the CanMEDS model. This commentary explores and reflects on the learning theories of behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism as they have evolved over time and the application of these learning theories in medical education, particularly in the context of medical education in Malaysia. The authors are convinced that these three theories are not mutually exclusive but should be operationalized contextually and throughout the different stages of learning in the MBBS curriculum. Understanding these theories and their application will enhance the learning experience of students.

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This article offers some personal reflections on the difficulty of teaching the behaviorist perspective in the psychology classroom. The problems focus on the inadequacy of introductory textbooks-which mischaracterize behaviorism, only present the most extreme behaviorist positions, make no mention of the neobehaviorist perspective, fail to discuss that there is no accepted criteria for determining what type of behavior is cognitive, and provide a definition of cognition that is, not only inconsistent across texts, but so broad as to overshadow the behaviorist contributions. Suggestions are provided for instructors on how to present to their students an accurate portrayal of behaviorism.

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O autor busca obstinadamente o que o momento cognitivista pode ensinar sobre o discurso analítico. A formulação “do neurônio ao nó” poderia resumir, graças à ajuda da assonância das palavras, a trajetória da teoria psicanalítica dos inícios de Freud ao último Lacan. Mas poderíamos dizer que os nós ocupam o lugar dessa quantidade material que é colocada como premissa por Freud quando ele tenta elaborar uma psicologia que seja científica. Para que seja científica, ela deve tratar de algo material. Coloca-se a questão do que faz a correlação – fundada ou não? – entre ciência e matéria.

The author persistently seeks what the cognitivist moment can teach about analytical discourse. The phrase: “from the neuron to the node” could summarize the analytical speech of the trajectory of the psychoanalytic theory from the beginning of Freud first until the last of Lacan, with the help of the words in assonance. But we could say that these nodes occupy the place of this material quantity which is placed as Freud's premises when he tries to develop a psychology that is scientific. To be scientific, it must address to something that is material. This raises the question of what makes the correlation-founded or not - between science and material.

L'auteur cherche obstinément ce que le moment cognitiviste peut enseigner sur le discours analytique. La formulation "du neurone au noeud" pourrait résumer, grâce à l'aide de l’assonance des mots, la trajectoire de la théorie psychanalytique Du début de Freud jusqu’au dernier Lacan. Mais on pourrait dire que nous occupons la place de cette quantité materielle qui est établie comme prémisse par Freud quand il essaie de développer une psychologie qui est scientifique. Pour être scientifique, elle doit répondre à quelque chose de matériel. La question de ce qui fait la corrélation - fondée ou non? - entre la science et la matière.

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O autor busca obstinadamente o que o momento cognitivista pode ensinar sobre o discurso analítico. A formulação “do neurônio ao nó” poderia resumir, graças à ajuda da assonância das palavras, a trajetória da teoria psicanalítica dos inícios de Freud ao último Lacan. Mas poderíamos dizer que os nós ocupam o lugar dessa quantidade material que é colocada como premissa por Freud quando ele tenta elaborar uma psicologia que seja científica. Para que seja científica, ela deve tratar de algo material. Coloca-se a questão do que faz a correlação – fundada ou não? – entre ciência e matéria(AU)

The author persistently seeks what the cognitivist moment can teach about analytical discourse. The phrase: “from the neuron to the node” could summarize the analytical speech of the trajectory of the psychoanalytic theory from the beginning of Freud first until the last of Lacan, with the help of the words in assonance. But we could say that these nodes occupy the place of this material quantity which is placed as Freud's premises when he tries to develop a psychology that is scientific. To be scientific, it must address to something that is material. This raises the question of what makes the correlation-founded or not - between science and material(AU)

L'auteur cherche obstinément ce que le moment cognitiviste peut enseigner sur le discours analytique. La formulation "du neurone au noeud" pourrait résumer, grâce à l'aide de l’assonance des mots, la trajectoire de la théorie psychanalytique Du début de Freud jusqu’au dernier Lacan. Mais on pourrait dire que nous occupons la place de cette quantité materielle qui est établie comme prémisse par Freud quand il essaie de développer une psychologie qui est scientifique. Pour être scientifique, elle doit répondre à quelque chose de matériel. La question de ce qui fait la corrélation - fondée ou non? - entre la science et la matière(AU)

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