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Pickering based emulsion system are been gaining interest in active delivery of encapsulated molecules in food system. In the present study, cellulose nanoparticles (CNPs) were isolated from food waste (banana peel) using acid hydrolysis followed by high-intensity ultrasonication. The complex colloidal nanoparticles (CNPSPH) were fabricated using hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions between cellulose nanoparticles and soy protein hydrolysates. With 400 W power level for 30 min, size of 53.11 ± 1.45 nm with polydispersity index of 0.21 ± 0.21 and Zeta potential of - 34.33 ± 0.77 were noted for generated CNPs. The three-phase contact angle (o/w) of CNPSPH at a mass ratio of 1:1 CNPs to SPHs (CNPSPH 1:1) was approximately 89.07°, indicating as effective Pickering emulsifiers. Furthermore, the stability of the Pickering emulsion stabilised by CNPSPH complex was investigated under various pH and temperature conditions. The findings will provide solution in development of nanocellulose-soy protein complex particles for a stabilized Pickering emulsion formation. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-023-01477-w.

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The research aimed to explore the potential of palm kernel meal (PKM) as a sustainable source of cellulose nanoparticles (CNPs) for active food packaging. The CNPs were isolated using a combination of chemical techniques, such as alkaline treatment, bleaching, and acid hydrolysis. The characterization of the CNPs was analysed using various techniques, including scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and UV-visible spectroscopy. The findings revealed that chemical processing effectively removed lignin and hemicellulose from PKM. The SEM morphology confirmed the separation of the CNPs, resulting in the production of 40-100 nm spherical cellulose nanoparticles, while XRD and FTIR analyses confirmed their purity and composition. Moreover, the UV-visible spectroscopy exhibited high transmittance rates, indicating the potential of CNPs as reinforcing agents for polymer matrices. The significance of utilising PKM as a valuable fibre source for extracting CNPs can be recommended for developing active food packaging.

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Nanomaterials are currently used for different applications in several fields. Bringing the measurements of a material down to nanoscale size makes vital contributions to the improvement of the characteristics of materials. The polymer composites acquire various properties when added to nanoparticles, increasing characteristics such as bonding strength, physical property, fire retardance, energy storage capacity, etc. The objective of this review was to validate the major functionality of the carbon and cellulose-based nanoparticle-filled polymer nanocomposites (PNC), which include fabricating procedures, fundamental structural properties, characterization, morphological properties, and their applications. Subsequently, this review includes arrangement of nanoparticles, their influence, and the factors necessary to attain the required size, shape, and properties of the PNCs.

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Rapid diagnostic systems are essential in controlling the spread of viral pathogens and efficient patient management. The available technologies for low-cost viral antigen testing have several limitations, including a lack of accuracy and sensitivity. Here, we introduce a platform based on cellulose II nanoparticles (oppositely charged NPan and NPcat) for effective control of surface protein interactions, leading to rapid and sensitive antigen tests. Passivation against non-specific adsorption and augmented immobilization of sensing antibodies is achieved by adjusting the electrostatic charge of the nanoparticles. The interactions affecting the performance of the system are investigated by microgravimetry and confocal imaging. As a proof-of-concept test, SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid sensing was carried out by using saliva-wicking by channels that were stencil-printed on paper. We conclude that inkjet-printed NPcat elicits strong optical signals, visible after a few minutes, opening the opportunity for cost-effective and rapid diagnostic. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10570-022-05038-y.

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Vetiver zizanioides roots are considered the most useful part of the plant. It is widely used to extract oil. The aromatic oil is used in perfumery, food-flavouring and cosmetic industries. However, presently, there are no reports available for the usage of vetiver roots agro-waste after oil extraction in nano-based products. Considering the concept of value-added products and green-chemistry approaches, synthesising cellulose nanoparticles (CNPs) using enzymatic treatment from agro-waste has emerged as a viable option. CNP's non-toxicity, biodegradability, and biocompatibility have sparked the industry's interest in its production. Therefore, in the present study, 3 enzymes, cellulase, pectinase, and viscozymes, were used for the green synthesis of CNP. The characterisation of CNP was done using techniques like DLS, FTIR, TEM, SEM, AFM, and TG/DTG, and cytotoxicity of CNP was studied in human skin cell-line (HaCaT) using MTT assay. Results show that CNPs synthesised using viscozyme and pectinase were of crystalline nature (2.0-3.0 nm) and cellulase were of fibres (40-60 nm). The FTIR confirmed that CNPs were devoid of lignin/hemicellulose. The AFM pictures revealed thick and thin nanoparticles with a variety of morphologies. The thermal stability of cellulose was higher compared to CNP. All the synthesised CNPs were crystaline, with a 60-70% crystallinity index. Furthermore, CNP did not show cytotoxic effect on HaCaT cells upto 500 µg/mL concentrations. In conclusion, pectinase and viscosyme may be used for synthesing cellulose-nanocrystals and cellulase enzyme for cellulose-nanofibers from the vetiver roots agro-waste. The findings revealed that Vetiveria zizanioides agro-waste-derived CNP is a sustainable material that can be used as a reinforcing agent/nanocarrier in textile and drug-delivery systems.

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In this work, the extraction of carboxylated nanocrystalline cellulose from oat husk as an agricultural waste was conducted by ammonium persulfate oxidation. This is a one-step and efficient process for removal of amorphous regions from cellulosic fibers. The mean size of cellulose nanoparticles is about 30 nm with spherical morphology. The comparison of the infrared spectrum of the nanoparticles of cellulose and the primary oat husk evidences the successful elimination of non-cellulosic structures such as hemicellulose, lignin in nanocellulose sample. The X-ray diffraction patterns show higher degree of crystalline index in nanocellulose (57%) compared to the primary oat husk (38%). The comparison of the onsets of temperature degradation of the samples shows nanocellulose is less thermally stable than oat husk. The hydrophilic surface of the nanocellulose was modified using cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) cationic surfactant to improve loading capacity of hydrophobic indomethacin drug which has a low bioavailability and poor solubility in water. In vitro release profile of the indomethacin and drug release mechanism was studied. The results show the 67% of drug is released within 12 h and CTAB modified nanocellulose greatly acts as an indomethacin controlled-release carrier. Study of the in vitro drug release kinetics shows driven mechanism is diffusion-controlled release.

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Biopolymers-induced immune microenvironment exhibited prominent effects on bone regeneration. Osteo-immunomodulatory responses of cellulose nanoparticles incorporated chitosan hydrogel scaffolds have not yet been reported. The objective of this study was to monitor the synergistic effects of silk fibroin and cellulose nanoparticles on the immune-modulatory behavior of chitosan biopolymer scaffolds. 3D-printed biodegradable cellulose nanoparticles-reinforced chitosan/silk fibroin (CS/SF/CNPs) scaffolds were fabricated and characterized by different spectroscopic techniques. The improved rheological and recovery strength was observed in CS/SF/CNPs hydrogels than pure polymer hydrogels. A significant shift from M1 â†’ M2 macrophages polarization occurred in the CS/SF/CNPs scaffolds treated groups than the control after 3 days of incubation, showing its immune-modulatory potential. Osteo-immunomodulatory effects of the fabricated scaffolds were analyzed on human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs), with macrophages-derived conditioned media (M-CM). Enhanced bone regeneration was observed in the calvaria defect rat model, indicating that the fabricated scaffolds are promising materials for bone-healing applications.

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Nowadays, skin biocompatible products are fast-growing markets for nanocelluloses with increasing number of patents published in last decade. This review highlights recent developments, market trends, safety assessments, and regulations for different nanocellulose types (i.e. nanoparticles, nanocrystals, nanofibers, nanoyarns, bacterial nanocellulose) used in skincare, cosmetics, and healthcare. The specific properties of nanocelluloses for skincare include high viscosity and shear thinning properties, surface functionality, dispersion stability, water-holding capacity, purity, and biocompatibility. Depending on their morphology (e.g. size, aspect ratio, geometry, porosity), nanocelluloses can be used as formulation modifiers, moisturizers, nanofillers, additives, membranes, and films. Nanocellulose composite particles were recently developed as carriers for bioactive compounds or UV-blockers and platforms for wound healing and skin sensors. As toxicological assessment depends on morphologies and intrinsic properties, stringent regulation is needed from the testing of efficient nanocellulose dosages. The challenges and perspectives for an industrial breakthrough are related to optimization of production and processing conditions.

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There are vast reserves of foliage in nature, which is an inexhaustible precious resource. In this study, the chemical components of five foliage types (pine needles, black locust tree leaves, bamboo leaves, elm leaves and poplar leaves) were analyzed, including cellulose content, hemicellulose content, and lignin content. The bio-enzymatic method was then used to prepare cellulose nanoparticles (CNPs) from these five kinds of leaves, and the prepared CNPs were analyzed using TEM, FTIR, FESEM, and XRD. The results showed that the content of hemicellulose in bamboo leaves was the highest, and the lignin content in the other four leaves was the highest. The cellulose content in the five kinds of foliage was arranged from large to small as pine needles (20.5%), bamboo leaves (19.5%), black locust leaves (18.0%), elm leaves (17.6%), and poplar leaves (15.5%). TEM images showed that the CNPs prepared by the five kinds of foliage reached the nanometer level in width and the micrometer level in length; therefore, the CNPs prepared in this study belonged to cellulose nanofibers (CNFs). The results of FTIR and XRD showed that CNFs prepared by the enzyme treatment exhibited a typical crystalline structure of cellulose II. The degree of crystallinity (DOC) of CNFs prepared from pine needle, poplar leaves, and bamboo leaves are 78.46%, 77.39%, and 81.51%, respectively. FESEM results showed that the CNFs prepared from pine needles, poplar leaves and bamboo leaves by enzymatic method presents a three-dimensional (3D) network structure, and their widths are 31 nm, 36 nm, and 37 nm, respectively. This study provides a meaningful reference for broadening the use of foliage types and improving their added value.

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The main aim of the present study was to characterize banana starch films reinforced with nanoparticles from plantain rachis. Nanoparticles were obtained by acid hydrolysis and sonication, exhibiting a mean hydraulic diameter of about 60 nm. Scanning electron microscopy micrographs showed that the nanoparticle thickness ranged between 9.8 and 22.3 nm. The thermal gravimetric analysis showed that nanoparticles are thermally stable for temperatures up to 340 °C. Films were made for different fractions of nanoparticles (0.0, 1.75, 2.5, and 4.0%) relative to total solids, and glycerol was used as a plasticizer. The influence of the addition of nanoparticles to starch films on the morphology, water vapor permeability (WVP), and mechanical properties of the nanocomposites films was explored. Cellulose nanoparticles reduced the WVP, and increased the tensile strength and flexibility of the starch films. FTIR analysis of films was used to show that nanoparticles improved the molecular organization of starch chains. It was proposed that nanoparticles acted as a crosslinked for starch chains via hydrogen bonding effects.

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A physiologically relevant tumor microenvironment is favorable for the progression and growth of gastric cancer cells. To simulate the tumor-specific conditions of in vivo environments, several biomaterials engineering studies have investigated three-dimensional (3D) cultures. However, the implementation of such cultures remains limited because of challenges in outlining the biochemical and biophysical characteristics of the gastric cancer microenvironment. In this study, we developed a 3D cell printing-based gastric cancer model, using a combination of gastric tissue-specific bioinks and cellulose nanoparticles (CN) to provide adequate stiffness to gastric cancer cells. To create a 3D gastric tissue-specific microenvironment, we developed a decellularization process for a gastric tissue-derived decellularized extracellular matrix (g-dECM) bioink, and investigated the effect of the g-dECM bioink on promoting the aggressiveness of gastric cancer cells using histological and genetic validation methods. We found that incorporating CN in the matrix improves its mechanical properties, which supports the progression of gastric cancer. These mechanical properties are distinguishing characteristics that can facilitate the development of an in vitro gastric cancer model. Further, the CN-supplemented g-dECM bioink was used to print a variety of free-standing 3D shapes, including gastric rugae. These results indicate that the proposed model can be used to develop a physiologically relevant gastric cancer system that can be used in future preclinical trials.

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Cellulose microparticles from ginkgo seed shells were treated by ultrasonic treatments within the selected output powders (150-600 W) and durations (10-60 min) to produce cellulose nanoparticles. The main aim of this study was to investigate effects of ultrasonic conditions on the interfacial property and emulsifying property of those cellulose nanoparticles. Compared to ultrasonic output powers, ultrasonic durations showed the greater influence on morphology and physical properties of cellulose nanoparticles. Atomic force microscopy revealed that noodle-like cellulose particles with 1100 nm in length gradually became the short rod-like nanoparticles with 300 nm in length with increasing of ultrasonic duration from 10 min to 60 min. Moreover, results of contact angles indicated that ultrasound could significantly improve hydrophobicity of cellulose nanoparticles. The interfacial shear rheology showed that although all cellulose nanoparticles exhibited the similar interface adsorption behavior which showed the initial lag-phase of adsorption, followed by the interface saturation, the time of this initial lag-phase was affected by ultrasonic conditions. The increase of ultrasonic duration and ultrasonic power could shorten the time of this initial lag-phase, suggesting the resulting cellulose nanoparticles easier adsorption at the O/W interface. It was probably attributed to its small size and high hydrophobicity induced by intense ultrasonic treatments. Meanwhile, the cellulose nanoparticles with small size and higher hydrophobicity exhibited the better emulsifying ability to stabilize oil-in-water emulsions due to the formation of the viscoelastic interfacial film. This study improved understanding about changes in interfacial and emulsifying properties of cellulose nanoparticles caused by ultrasonic treatments.

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The widespread use of nanomaterials poses a great threat to human living environments. Among them, biomass-derived cellulose nanoparticle (CN) is one of the widely used nanomaterials. To date, the toxicity of CNs during embryonic development remains undetermined. In this study, we exposed zebrafish embryos to cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) to evaluate the toxicity of these CNs. Exposure to CNFs or CNCs below 30 mg/ml exhibited no dose-dependent increases in malformation and mortality in zebrafish embryos. Then we demonstrated that CNs were highly enriched in zebrafish embryo via imaging analyses of embryos treated with FITC-coupled CNCs. In addition, we found that CNF or CNC exposure resulted in compromised motor ability of zebrafish larva. Furthermore, it was revealed that the differentiation and the morphogenesis of motor neurons were significantly interrupted. While, blood vessels were normally patterned, suggesting the specific neurotoxicity of these nanomaterials. Transcriptome sequencing assay showed that the neurotoxicity of CNs in the motor neurons might be attributed to the expression alteration of neural genes. In summary, we discovered the neurotoxicity of CNs for the first time.

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Copper carboxymethyl cellulose nanoparticles were prepared and characterized by FT-IR, XRD, SEM, TEM, and EDX techniques. Removal of tetracycline was obtained at 90% with optimized parameters of 500 µg/L concentration, 40 min contact time, 7.5 pH, 1.5 g/L dose, and 298 K temp. The adsorption followed Freundlich model very well in comparison to Langmuir. Tempkin model described good interactions between tetracycline and nanoparticles. Dubinin-Radushkevich isotherm confirmed the chemical nature of adsorption. The adsorption was pseudo-second order with a liquid film diffusion kinetics mechanism. The adsorption was endothermic and spontaneous as suggested by thermodynamics results. The supramolecular mechanism was developed for the process. Interestingly, the process was suitable at 7.5 pH with low contact time. These features of the adsorption made this process applicable at natural water conditions, making the process eco-friendly and feasible. Therefore, it may be an excellent method for the removal of tetracycline in any water system.

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In this study, parenchyma cellulose, which was extracted from maize stalk pith as an abundant source of agricultural residues, was applied for preparing cellulose nanoparticles (CNPs) via an ultrasound-assisted etherification and a subsequent sonication process. The ultrasonic-assisted treatment greatly improved the modification of the pith cellulose with glycidyltrimethylammonium chloride, leading to a partial increase in the dissolubility of the as-obtained product and thus disintegration of sheet-like cellulose into nanoparticles. While the formation of CNPs by ultrasonication was largely dependent on the cellulose consistency in the cationic-modified system. Under the condition of 25% cellulose consistency, the longer sono-treated duration yielded a more stable and dispersible suspension of CNP due to its higher zeta potential. Degree of substitution and FT-IR analyses indicated that quaternary ammonium salts were grafted onto hydroxyl groups of cellulose chain. SEM and TEM images exhibited the CNP to have spherical morphology with an average dimeter from 15 to 55 nm. XRD investigation revealed that CNPs consisted mainly of a crystalline cellulose Ι structure, and they had a lower crystallinity than the starting cellulose. Moreover, thermogravimetric results illustrated the thermal resistance of the CNPs was lower than the pith cellulose. The optimal CNP with highly cationic charges, good stability and acceptable thermostability might be considered as one of the alternatively renewable reinforcement additives for nanocomposite production.

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In this work, ionic liquids-modified magnetic carboxymethyl cellulose nanoparticles (IL-MCMC) were prepared and used as supports for enzyme immobilization. The specific activity of immobilized lipase PPL-IL-MCMC was 1.43 and 2.81 folds higher than that of free PPL and PPL-MCMC, respectively. Water contact angle analysis indicated that the introduction of ionic liquids increased the hydrophobicity of supports, which in tune induced the lid-opening of lipase, allowing its active sites to become more accessible. In addition, the affinity between lipase and substrate immobilized on the prepared supports was enhanced. The same method was also applied to analyze immobilize penicillin G acylase (PGA) to further investigate the general applicability of the method. The results showed that the immobilized PGA exhibited higher stability than many other reported PGAs. The developed composites may be utilized as excellent supports for enzyme immobilization in industrial application.

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In this study, nano-sized cellulose modified with lactic acid (MW-Ce-LA) was prepared with the assistant of microwave then used for the adsorption of Cu2+ from real samples. This modified cellulose was characterized by means of FTIR, TEM, XRD, and elemental analysis. ICP-OES was used for determination of Cu2+. The effect of pH, adsorption times, temperature, sorbent dose, and initial adsorbate concentration were studied to detect the ideal adsorption condition. Langmuir model proved to be the best to fit the adsorption isotherm experiments with maximum adsorption capacity of 90.3 mg g-1 Cu2+. Calculated thermodynamic parameters (ΔG° and ΔH°) for adsorption of Cu2+ on MW-Ce-LA suggested exothermic and nonspontaneous character of the adsorption process. The reusability tests indicated regeneration of the prepared adsorbent simply using 1 mol L-1 of HCl. The examined method was used effectively to preconcentrate Cu2+ from water, blood, and food samples.

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In this study, a bionanocomposite based food packaging film was designed to reduce environmental hazards. Cellulose nanoparticles (CNP) were prepared from the non-edible part of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) by alkaline treatment, bleaching, and acid hydrolysis. The newly designed bionanocomposite film consists of CNP, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and fennel seed essential oil (EO). The composition of the film was optimized using central composite design of response surface methodology. Quadratic models were developed for responses such as elongation at break, tensile strength, free radical scavenging (antioxidant) activity, and antimicrobial activity. The optimized film reported seven-fold increase in tensile strength and six-fold in elongation at break compared to PVA film due to incorporation of CNP. Quality of the optimized film was further confirmed by evaluating morphological features, surface characteristics, physical and thermal properties. The results suggest that the newly designed EO incorporated CNP-PVA bionanocomposite film as a better alternative for traditional food packaging materials.

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The interest in designing new environmentally friendly materials has led to the development of biodegradable foams as a potential substitute to most currently used fossil fuel-derived polymer foams. Despite the possibility of developing biodegradable and environmentally friendly polymer foams, the challenge of foaming biopolymers still persists as they have very low melt strength and viscosity as well as low crystallisation kinetics. Studies have shown that the incorporation of cellulose nanostructure (CN) particles into biopolymers can enhance the foamability of these materials. In addition, the final properties and performance of the foamed products can be improved with the addition of these nanoparticles. They not only aid in foamability but also act as nucleating agents by controlling the morphological properties of the foamed material. Here, we provide a critical and accessible overview of the influence of CN particles on the properties of biodegradable foams; in particular, their rheological, thermal, mechanical, and flammability and thermal insulating properties and biodegradability.

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High quality cellulose nanoparticles (CNP) were isolated from water hyacinth stem cellulose (Cel-WH) extracted via successive thermochemical and alkaline-peroxide treatments, and further enzymatically hydrolysed using the commercial cellulase complex, NS22086, at 50ºC. The maximum CNP concentration was reached after 120 min of enzymatic hydrolysis, with a hydrodynamic diameter in the order of 200-250 nm and an increase of 5% in crystallinity as compared with Cel-WH. The obtained rod-shaped cellulose nanocrystals, as revealed by atomic force microscopy (AFM), exhibited a nominal diameter of 15.6-29.4 nm, a length of 56-184.8 nm, and a height of 2.85-6.43 nm, indicating a low tendency to form aggregates. In the present study, it was found that water hyacinth stems are a valuable source for the isolation of high-quality CNP using an environmentally friendly procedure, with potential applications in nanomedicine and nanopharmacology.

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