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BACKGROUND: Patients with psychiatric disorders have higher rates of chronic medical conditions and decreased life expectancy. Integrating medical and psychiatric care is likely to improve health outcomes for these patients. OBJECTIVE: This study examined what proportion of psychiatry residents viewed psychiatry as a primary care specialty, how important they felt it was to provide primary care to patients, and how this perception altered self-reported comfort and practice patterns in providing screening and treatment for select general medical conditions. METHODS: An online survey was sent to current psychiatry residents of US residency programs. RESULTS: A total of 268 residents from 40 programs completed the survey (25% response rate), with 55% (147 of 265) of respondents considering psychiatry to be a primary care specialty. Residents who held this opinion gave higher ratings for the importance of providing preventive counseling and reported counseling a higher percentage of patients on a variety of topics. They also reported screening more patients for several medical conditions. Residents who considered psychiatry to be primary care did not report greater comfort with treating these conditions, with the exception of dyslipidemia. The most commonly cited barrier to integrating primary care services was lack of time. CONCLUSIONS: Residents' perceptions of psychiatry as a primary care field appears to be associated with a higher reported likelihood of counseling about, and screening for, medical conditions in their patients.

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There is a consistent need for more child and adolescent psychiatrists. Despite increased recruitment of child and adolescent psychiatry trainees, traditional models of care will likely not be able to meet the need of youth with mental illness. Integrated care models focusing on population-based, team-based, measurement-based, and evidenced-based care have been effective in addressing accessibility and quality of care. These integrated models have specific needs regarding health information technology (HIT). HIT has been used in a variety of different ways in several integrated care models. HIT can aid in implementation of these models but is not without its challenges.

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OBJECTIVE: Assertive community treatment (ACT) is one of the few evidence-based practices for adults with severe mental illness. Interest has slowly waned for ACT implementation. Yet ACT remains an appealing services platform to achieve the triple aim of health care reform (improved health outcomes, reduced cost, and improved satisfaction) through integration of primary care and behavioral health services. This review highlights the evidence for ACT to improve general medical outcomes, reduce treatment costs, and increase access to treatment. METHODS: Using a comprehensive list of relevant search terms, the authors performed a systematic literature database search for articles published through November 2015, resulting in ten articles for inclusion. RESULTS: No studies reported on clinical outcomes of general medical comorbidities or on mortality of ACT clients. Half of the studies reporting utilization (three of six) found a decrease in emergency room usage, and three of four studies identified an increase in outpatient primary care visits. Most studies found no increase in overall medical care costs. Of the few studies reporting on quality of life, most found mild to moderate improvements. CONCLUSIONS: To date, rigorous scientific examination of the effect of ACT on the general health of the populations it serves has not been undertaken. Given ACT's similarity to emerging chronic illness medical management models, the approach seems like a natural fit for improving general medical outcomes of persons with severe mental illnesses. More research is needed that investigates the current effect of ACT teams on general medical outcomes, treatment costs, and access to care.

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This issue provides a clinical overview of depression, focusing on screening, diagnosis, treatment, and practice improvement. The content of In the Clinic is drawn from the clinical information and education resources of the American College of Physicians (ACP), including MKSAP (Medical Knowledge and Self-Assessment Program). Annals of Internal Medicine editors develop In the Clinic in collaboration with the ACP's Medical Education and Publishing divisions and with the assistance of additional science writers and physician writers.

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OBJECTIVE: Persons with severe mental illness die 15-20 years earlier on average than persons without severe mental illness. Although infection is one of the leading overall causes of death, no studies have evaluated whether persons with severe mental illness have a higher mortality after infection than those without. METHOD: The authors studied mortality rate ratios and cumulative mortality proportions after an admission for infection for persons with severe mental illness compared with persons without severe mental illness by linking data from Danish national registries. RESULTS: The cohort consisted of all persons hospitalized for infection during the period 1995-2011 in Denmark (N=806,835), of whom 11,343 persons had severe mental illness. Within 30 days after an infection, 1,052 (9.3%) persons with a history of severe mental illness and 58,683 (7.4%) persons without a history of severe mental illness died. Thirty-day mortality after any infection was 52% higher in persons with severe mental illness than in persons without (mortality rate ratio=1.52, 95% CI=1.43-1.61). Mortality was increased for all infections, and the mortality rate ratios ranged from 1.27 (95% CI=1.15-1.39) for persons hospitalized for sepsis to 2.61 (95% CI=1.69-4.02) for persons hospitalized for CNS infections. Depending on age, 1.7 (95% CI=1.2-2.2) to 2.9 (95% CI=2.0-3.7) more deaths were observed within 30 days after an infection per 100 persons with a history of severe mental illness compared with 100 persons without such a history. CONCLUSIONS: Persons with severe mental illness have a markedly elevated 30-day mortality after infection. Some of these excess deaths may be prevented by offering individualized and targeted interventions.

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Veterans have high rates of chronic pain and long-term opioid therapy (LTOT). Understanding predictors of discontinuation from LTOT will clarify the risks for prolonged opioid use and dependence among this population. All veterans with at least 90 days of opioid use within a 180-day period were identified using national Veteran's Health Affairs (VHA) data between 2009 and 2011. Discontinuation was defined as 6 months with no opioid prescriptions. We used Cox proportional hazards analysis to determine clinical and demographic correlates for discontinuation. A total of 550,616 veterans met criteria for LTOT. The sample was primarily male (93%) and white (74%), with a mean age of 57.8 years. The median daily morphine equivalent dose was 26 mg, and 7% received high-dose (>100mg MED) therapy. At 1 year after initiation, 7.5% (n=41,197) of the LTOT sample had discontinued opioids. Among those who discontinued (20%, n=108,601), the median time to discontinuation was 317 days. Factors significantly associated with discontinuation included both younger and older age, lower average dosage, and having received less than 90 days of opioids in the previous year. Although tobacco use disorders decreased the likelihood of discontinuation, co-morbid mental illness and substance use disorders increased the likelihood of discontinuation. LTOT is common in the VHA system and is marked by extended duration of use at relatively low daily doses with few discontinuation events. Opioid discontinuation is more likely in veterans with mental health and substance use disorders. Further research is needed to delineate causes and consequences of opioid discontinuation.

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BACKGROUND: Depression and diabetes are highly comorbid, with depression increasing risk of diabetes-related complications and mortality. Few studies have examined the relationship between depression and diabetes in safety-net populations with high rates of trauma exposure, anxiety, and substance use disorders. METHODS: Using a cross-sectional survey of 261 patients with diabetes attending safety-net clinics, associations between depression and key diabetes control parameters were examined in bivariate and multivariable analyses adjusting for relevant confounders and significant interactions. RESULTS: Among the participants, 57% were men, 51% were white, and the average age was 57 years. Most respondents were unemployed (81%) and earned less than $10,000 per year (51%). Overall, 28% screened positive for depression, with a high overlap of posttraumatic stress (58%) and generalized anxiety (77%) symptoms. After adjustment for socioeconomic and clinical variables, depression was associated with higher mean body mass index (p = 0.01), severe obesity (body mass index ≥ 35kg/m(2)) (odds ratio = 2.34, 95% CI: 1.09-5.04, p = 0.03) and uncontrolled diastolic blood pressure (odds ratio = 2.49, 95% CI: 1.15-5.39, p = 0.02). There was a nonsignificant trend for those with depression to have worse control of blood glucose. Associations with depression and diabetes clinical outcomes were not significantly worsened in the presence of comorbid anxiety disorders. CONCLUSIONS: Within a highly comorbid safety-net population, significant associations between depression and key diabetes outcomes remained after accounting for relevant covariates. Further research will help elucidate the relationship between depression and diabetes control measures in safety-net populations.

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Ischemic heart disease (IHD) is the leading cause of mortality among adults with severe mental illness. Although gains in reducing mortality from IHD through screening, risk reduction, and early intervention have been realized for the general public, rates of recognition and treatment among individuals with mental illness continue to be poor. Obtaining blood samples from patients who have been fasting for eight to 12 hours is challenging for adults with severe mental illness and presents an additional obstacle to screening and treatment. This column outlines newer guidelines for cholesterol and diabetes screening that provide valid alternatives to fasting blood draws, thereby significantly reducing this common barrier to recognition of leading risk factors for IHD.

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People with serious mental illness often receive inadequate primary and preventive care services. Federal healthcare reform endorses team-based care that provides high quality primary and preventive care to at risk populations. Assertive community treatment (ACT) teams offer a proven, standardized treatment approach effective in improving mental health outcomes for the seriously mentally ill. Much is known about the effectiveness of ACT teams in improving mental health outcomes, but the degree to which medical care needs are addressed is not established. The purpose of this study was to explore the extent to which ACT teams address the physical health of the population they serve. ACT team leaders were invited to complete an anonymous, web-based survey to explore attitudes and activities involving the primary care needs of their clients. Information was collected regarding the use of health screening tools, physical health assessments, provision of medical care and collaboration with primary care systems. Data was analyzed from 127 team leaders across the country, of which 55 completed the entire survey. Nearly every ACT team leader believed ACT teams have a role in identifying and managing the medical co-morbidities of their clientele. ACT teams report participation in many primary care activities. ACT teams are providing a substantial amount of primary and preventive services to their population. The survey suggests standardization of physical health identification, management or referral processes within ACT teams may result in improved quality of medical care. ACT teams are in a unique position to improve physical health care by virtue of having medically trained staff and frequent, close contact with their clients.

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Individuals with co-morbid chronic medical illness and psychiatric illness are a costly and complex patient population, at high risk for poor outcomes. Health-risk behaviours (e.g. smoking, poor diet, and sedentary lifestyle), side effects from psychiatric medications, and poor quality medical care all contribute to poor outcomes. Individuals with major depression die, on average, 5 to 10 years before their age-matched counterparts. For individuals with severe mental illness such as bipolar disorder or schizophrenia, life expectancy may be up to 20 years shorter. As the majority of this premature mortality is due to cardiovascular disease, there is a critical need to engage these individuals around the care of chronic medical illness.

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OBJECTIVES: Describe older patients' perceptions about depression and characteristics associated with acceptance of treatments. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Three primary care clinics in Iowa. PARTICIPANTS: Consecutive sample of 529 primary care patients. MEASUREMENTS: Depression screening tool (a 9-item patient health questionnaire [PHQ-9]) and questionnaire including sociodemographic data, patient attitudes about depression, and acceptability of different treatments. RESULTS: Mean age was 71.9 years (range 60-93 years), 314 (59%) female. Among the 529 participants, 93 (17.5%) had history of depression and 60 (11.3%) had PHQ-9 scores of 10 or greater. Participants believed depression is a disease for which they would use medication and counseling. Accepting medications from primary physicians was strongly associated with a past history of depression (P < 0.01) and with agreeing that depression needs treatment (P < 0.01). Counseling was not acceptable for those believing that they can control depression on their own (P < 0.01). Older patients (P < 0.001) and those with higher education levels (P < 0.01) were less likely to accept herbs or supplements as treatment options. Willingness to discuss treatments with family was associated with not using alcohol as a treatment and acceptance of all other treatment options (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Attitude that depression is a disease and the willingness to discuss depression with family may enhance treatment acceptance.

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OBJECTIVE: To describe the presenting symptoms of women with depression in two obstetrics and gynecology clinics, determine depression diagnosis frequency, and examine factors associated with depression diagnosis. METHODS: Data were extracted from charts of women screening positive for depression in a clinical trial testing a collaborative care depression intervention. Bivariate and multivariable analyses examined patient factors associated with the diagnosis of depression by an obstetrician-gynecologist (ob-gyn). RESULTS: Eleven percent of women with depression presented with a psychologic chief complaint but another 30% mentioned psychologic distress. All others noted physical symptoms only or presented for preventive care. Ob-gyns did not identify 60% of women with a depression diagnosis. Depression severity was similar in women who were or were not diagnosed by their ob-gyns. Bivariate analyses showed four factors significantly associated with depression diagnosis: reporting a psychologic symptom as the chief complaint or associated symptom (72% compared with 18.6%, P<.001), younger age (35.5 years compared with 40.8 years, P<.005), being within 12 months postpartum (13.9% compared with 2.8%, P<.005), and a primary care-oriented visit (72% compared with 30%, P<.001). Multivariable analysis showed that reporting a psychologic symptom (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 8.90, 95% confidence interval [CI] 4.15-19.10, P<.001), a primary care oriented visit (adjusted OR 2.46, 95% CI 1.14-5.29, P=.03), and each year of increasing age (adjusted OR 0.96, 95% CI 0.93-0.96, P=.02) were significantly associated with a depression diagnosis. CONCLUSION: The majority of women with depression presented with physical symptoms; most women with depression were not diagnosed by their ob-gyn, and depression severity was similar in those diagnosed and those not diagnosed. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

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OBJECTIVE This study compared program measures of assertive community treatment (ACT) with standards of accreditation for the patient-centered medical home (PCMH) to determine whether there were similarities in the infrastructure of the two methods of service delivery and whether high-fidelity ACT teams would qualify for medical home accreditation. METHODS The authors compared National Committee for Quality Assurance PCMH standards with two ACT fidelity measures (the Dartmouth Assertive Community Treatment Scale and the Tool for Measurement of Assertive Community Treatment [TMACT]) and with national ACT program standards. RESULTS PCMH standards pertaining to enhanced access and continuity, management of care, and self-care support demonstrated strong overlap across ACT measures. Standards for identification and management of populations, care coordination and follow-up, and quality improvement demonstrated less overlap. The TMACT and the program standards had sufficient overlap to score in the range of a level 1 PCMH, but no ACT measure sufficiently detailed methods of population-based screening and tracking of referrals to satisfy "must-pass" elements of the standards. CONCLUSIONS ACT measures and medical home standards had significant overlap in innate infrastructure. ACT teams following the program standards or undergoing TMACT fidelity review could have the necessary infrastructure to serve as medical homes if they were properly equipped to supervise general medical care and administer activities to improve management of chronic diseases.

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OBJECTIVE: Cardiovascular disease is the most frequent cause of death of persons with severe and persistent mental illness, and there is evidence of a widening mortality gap with the general population. Modifiable risk factors for cardiovascular disease, including dyslipidemia, are frequently underrecognized and undertreated. This review provides practitioners with an update on screening, diagnosis, and referral or treatment of dyslipidemia in this population. METHODS: A literature search in PubMed from 1990 to 2012 that used various combinations of the terms cholesterol, screening, diagnosis, treatment, and severe mental illnesses identified 74 clinically relevant articles for review, and reference lists guided further exploration of sources. Additional material was selected with a focus on emerging guidelines to create clinically relevant recommendations for practitioners. RESULTS: Multiple barriers can prevent clinicians from obtaining samples from fasting patients, which can be detrimental to successful screening. Dyslipidemia can be successfully screened for with nonfasting total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and triglycerides, with follow-up measurement of fasting low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol if total cholesterol is greater than 200 mg/dl or triglycerides are above 500 mg/dl. Compelling evidence supports pharmacologic treatment of dyslipidemia to reduce cardiovascular events among high-risk patients. CONCLUSIONS: When obtaining samples from fasting patients is not feasible, use of samples from nonfasting patients can radically improve management of dyslipidemia among persons with severe and persistent mental illness. Common medications used to treat dyslipidemia are inexpensive, safe, and effective and could be more liberally employed to address comorbidities in this population.

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BACKGROUND: Edema associated with quetiapine has been described in only one case report to date and represents a potentially serious adverse reaction. METHODS: We present a case series of 3 patients who developed bilateral leg edema following initiation of quetiapine. RESULTS: One of these patients had a recurrence of edema with subsequent rechallenge. Another patient developed quetiapine-induced edema following a prior episode of olanzapine-induced edema. All 3 cases present a compelling temporal relationship between the drug challenge and the adverse event. CONCLUSION: Prompt recognition and intervention with discontinuation of the offending agent is important for this potentially serious, seemingly idiosyncratic vascular complication.

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