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3D in vitro systems offer advantages over the shortcomings of two-dimensional models by simulating the morphological and functional features of in vivo-like environments, such as cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions, as well as the co-culture of different cell types. Nevertheless, these systems present technical challenges that limit their potential in cancer research requiring cell line- and culture-dependent standardization. This protocol details the use of a magnetic 3D bioprinting method and other associated techniques (cytotoxicity assay and histological analysis) using oral squamous cell carcinoma cell line, HSC3, which offer advantages compared to existing widely used approaches. This protocol is particularly timely, as it validates magnetic bioprinting as a method for the rapid deployment of 3D cultures as a tool for compound screening and development of heterotypic cultures such as co-culture of oral squamous cell carcinoma cells with cancer-associated fibroblasts (HSC3/CAFs).

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Introduction: Cancer refers to a group of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells in the body. Due to its complexity, it has been hard to find an ideal medicine to treat all cancer types, although there is an urgent need for it. However, the cost of developing a new drug is high and time-consuming. In this sense, drug repurposing (DR) can hasten drug discovery by giving existing drugs new disease indications. Many computational methods have been applied to achieve DR, but just a few have succeeded. Therefore, this review aims to show in silico DR approaches and the gap between these strategies and their ultimate application in oncology. Methods: The scoping review was conducted according to the Arksey and O'Malley framework and the Joanna Briggs Institute recommendations. Relevant studies were identified through electronic searching of PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science databases, as well as the grey literature. We included peer-reviewed research articles involving in silico strategies applied to drug repurposing in oncology, published between 1 January 2003, and 31 December 2021. Results: We identified 238 studies for inclusion in the review. Most studies revealed that the United States, India, China, South Korea, and Italy are top publishers. Regarding cancer types, breast cancer, lymphomas and leukemias, lung, colorectal, and prostate cancer are the top investigated. Additionally, most studies solely used computational methods, and just a few assessed more complex scientific models. Lastly, molecular modeling, which includes molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations, was the most frequently used method, followed by signature-, Machine Learning-, and network-based strategies. Discussion: DR is a trending opportunity but still demands extensive testing to ensure its safety and efficacy for the new indications. Finally, implementing DR can be challenging due to various factors, including lack of quality data, patient populations, cost, intellectual property issues, market considerations, and regulatory requirements. Despite all the hurdles, DR remains an exciting strategy for identifying new treatments for numerous diseases, including cancer types, and giving patients faster access to new medications.

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Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most common and lethal type of head and neck cancer in the world. Variable response and acquisition of resistance to traditional therapies show that it is essential to develop novel strategies that can provide better outcomes for the patient. Understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms of cell death control has increased rapidly in recent years. Activation of cell death pathways, such as the emerging forms of non-apoptotic programmed cell death, including ferroptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, NETosis, parthanatos, mitoptosis and paraptosis, may represent clinically relevant novel therapeutic opportunities. This systematic review summarizes the recently described forms of cell death in OSCC, highlighting their potential for informing diagnosis, prognosis and treatment. Original studies that explored any of the selected cell deaths in OSCC were included. Electronic search, study selection, data collection and risk of bias assessment tools were realized. The literature search was carried out in four databases, and the extracted data from 79 articles were categorized and grouped by type of cell death. Ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis represented the main forms of cell death in the selected studies, with links to cancer immunity and inflammatory responses, progression and prognosis of OSCC. Harnessing the potential of these pathways may be useful in patient-specific prognosis and individualized therapy. We provide perspectives on how these different cell death types can be integrated to develop decision tools for diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of OSCC.

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Advances in the development of pharmacological treatment in oral cancer require tumor models capable of simulating the complex biology of the tumor microenvironment. The spread of three-dimensional models has changed the scenery of in vitro cell culture techniques, contributing to translational oncology. Still, the full extent of their application in preclinical drug trials is yet to be understood. Therefore, the present scoping review protocol was established to screen the literature on using three-dimensional cell culture models in drug-testing assays in the context of oral cancer. This scoping review will be conducted based on the guidelines established by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Review guidelines (PRISMA-ScR). We will search the PubMed/Medline, Web of Science, Scopus, and Embase databases, as well as the gray literature, including peer-reviewed research articles involving 3D models applied to drug-assessment assays in oral cancer published from 1 March 2013 until 1 March 2023. Data will be charted, and findings will be described according to the predetermined questions of interest. We will present these findings in a narrative manner.

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Cell-in-cell (CIC) structures contribute to tumor aggressiveness and poor prognosis in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). In vitro 3D models may contribute to the understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms of these events. We employed a spheroid model to study the CIC structures in OSCC. Spheroids were obtained from OSCC (HSC3) and cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) lines using the Nanoshuttle-PLTM bioprinting system (Greiner Bio-One). Spheroid form, size, and reproducibility were evaluated over time (EvosTM XL; ImageJ version 1.8). Slides were assembled, stained (hematoxylin and eosin), and scanned (Axio Imager Z2/VSLIDE) using the OlyVIA System (Olympus Life Science) and ImageJ software (NIH) for cellular morphology and tumor zone formation (hypoxia and/or proliferative zones) analysis. CIC occurrence, complexity, and morphology were assessed considering the spheroid regions. Well-formed spheroids were observed within 6 h of incubation, showing the morphological aspects of the tumor microenvironment, such as hypoxic (core) and proliferative zone (periphery) formation. CIC structures were found in both homotypic and heterotypic groups, predominantly in the proliferative zone of the mixed HSC3/CAF spheroids. "Complex cannibalism" events were also noted. These results showcase the potential of this model in further studies on CIC morphology, formation, and relationship with tumor prognosis.

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For over a century, cells within other cells have been detected by pathologists as common histopathological findings in tumors, being generally identified as "cell-in-cell" structures. Despite their characteristic morphology, these structures can originate from various processes, such as cannibalism, entosis and emperipolesis. However, only in the last few decades has more attention been given to these events due to their importance in tumor development. In cancers such as oral squamous cell carcinoma, cell-in-cell events have been linked to aggressiveness, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance. This review aims to summarize relevant information about the occurrence of various cell-in-cell phenomena in the context of oral squamous cell carcinoma, addressing their causes and consequences in cancer. The lack of a standard terminology in diagnosing these events makes it difficult to classify the existing cases and to map the behavior and impacts of these structures. Despite being frequently reported in oral squamous cell carcinoma and other cancers, their impacts on carcinogenesis aren't fully understood. Cell-in-cell formation is seen as a survival mechanism in the face of a lack of nutritional availability, an acid microenvironment and potential harm from immune cell defense. In this deadly form of competition, cells that engulf other cells establish themselves as winners, taking over as the predominant and more malignant cell population. Understanding the link between these structures and more aggressive behavior in oral squamous cell carcinoma is of paramount importance for their incorporation as part of a therapeutic strategy.

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Drug repurposing has been applied in the biomedical field to optimize the use of existing drugs, leading to a more efficient allocation of research resources. In oncology, this approach is particularly interesting, considering the high cost related to the discovery of new drugs with therapeutic potential. Computational methods have been applied to predict associations between drugs and their targets. However, drug repurposing has not always been promising and its efficiency has yet to be proven. Therefore, the present scoping review protocol was developed to screen the literature on how in silico strategies can be implemented in drug repurposing in oncology. The scoping review will be conducted according to the Arksey and O'Malley framework (2005) and the Joanna Briggs Institute recommendations. We will search the PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science databases, as well as the grey literature. We will include peer-reviewed research articles involving in silico strategies applied to drug repurposing in oncology, published between January 1, 2003, and December 31, 2021. Data will be charted and findings described according to review questions. We will report the scoping review using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Review guidelines (PRISMA-ScR).

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Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC) presents an important challenge for the health systems worldwide. Thus, unraveling the biological mechanisms involved in OSCC pathogenesis is essential to the discovery of new drugs with anticancer potential. The Hedgehog (HH) pathway has shown promising results as a therapeutic target both in vitro and in vivo. This study aimed to investigate the effects of vismodegib and itraconazole on the expression of Hedgehog (HH) genes (PTCH1, SMO, and GLI1), cell cycle and cell death in OSCC cells. Alamar Blue assay was used to assess the cytotoxicity of vismodegib and itraconazole in a panel of oral cancer cell lines, including CAL27. The expression of HH signaling components after treatment with vismodegib and itraconazole, at concentrations of 25 or 50 µg/ml was evaluated by qPCR. Cell cycle and apoptosis were evaluated by flow cytometry after 72 h treatment with 50 µg/ml of vismodegib or itraconazole. HH signaling was activated in OSCC cell lines CAL27, SCC4, SCC9, and HSC3. Vismodegib and itraconazole significantly reduced CAL27 cell viability after 48 h of treatment. Gene expression of PTCH1, SMO, and GLI1 decreased in response to 24 h of treatment with vismodegib or itraconazole. Furthermore, CAL27 cells exhibited alterations in morphology, cell size, and cellular granularity. An increase in the DNA fragmentation was observed after treatment and both inhibitors induced apoptosis after 72 h. In conclusion, SMO inhibitors vismodegib and itraconazole demonstrably reduced the expression of HH genes in CAL27 OSCC cell line. In addition, treatment with vismodegib and itraconazole reduced cellular viability and altered the morphology of CAL27 cells, and also induced apoptosis.