RESUMEN
In many organisms, telomeric DNA consists of long tracts of short repeats. Shorter tracts are preferentially lengthened by telomerase, suggesting a conserved mechanism that recognizes and elongates short telomeres. Tel1p, an ATM family checkpoint kinase, plays an important role in telomere elongation, as cells lacking Tel1p have short telomeres and show reduced recruitment of telomerase components to telomeres. We show that Tel1p association increased as telomeres shortened in vivo in the presence or absence of telomerase and that Tel1p preferentially associated with the shortest telomeres. Tel1p association was independent of Tel1p kinase activity and enhanced by Mre11p. Tel1p overexpression simultaneously stimulated telomerase-mediated elongation and Tel1p association with all telomeres. Thus, Tel1p preferentially associates with the shortest telomeres and stimulates their elongation by telomerase.
Asunto(s)
Péptidos y Proteínas de Señalización Intracelular/metabolismo , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/metabolismo , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/metabolismo , Telómero/metabolismo , Senescencia Celular , Endodesoxirribonucleasas/metabolismo , Exodesoxirribonucleasas/metabolismo , Péptidos y Proteínas de Señalización Intracelular/análisis , Modelos Genéticos , Proteínas Serina-Treonina Quinasas/análisis , Recombinación Genética , Proteínas de Saccharomyces cerevisiae/análisis , Telómero/ultraestructuraRESUMEN
The vitamin K-dependent (VKD) carboxylase converts Glu's to carboxylated Glu's in VKD proteins to render them functional in a broad range of physiologies. The carboxylase uses vitamin K hydroquinone (KH(2)) epoxidation to drive Glu carboxylation, and one of its critical roles is to provide a catalytic base that deprotonates KH(2) to allow epoxidation. A long-standing model invoked Cys as the catalytic base but was ruled out by activity retention in a mutant where every Cys is substituted by Ala. Inhibitor analysis of the cysteine-less mutant suggested that the base is an activated amine [Rishavy et al. (2004) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 13732-13737], and in the present study, we used an evolutionary approach to identify candidate amines, which revealed His160, His287, His381, and Lys218. When mutational analysis was performed using an expression system lacking endogenous carboxylase, the His to Ala mutants all showed full epoxidase activity but K218A activity was not detectable. The addition of exogenous amines restored K218A activity while having little effect on wild type carboxylase, and pH studies indicated that rescue was dependent upon the basic form of the amine. Importantly, Brønsted analysis that measured the effect of amines with different pK(a) values showed that K218A activity rescue depended upon the basicity of the amine. The combined results provide strong evidence that Lys218 is the essential base that deprotonates KH(2) to initiate the reaction. The identification of this base is an important advance in defining the carboxylase active site and has implications regarding carboxylase membrane topology and the feedback mechanism by which the Glu substrate regulates KH(2) oxygenation.
Asunto(s)
Ligasas de Carbono-Carbono/metabolismo , Ácidos Carboxílicos/metabolismo , Lisina/metabolismo , Vitamina K 2/metabolismo , Secuencia de Aminoácidos , Animales , Sitios de Unión , Ligasas de Carbono-Carbono/química , Ligasas de Carbono-Carbono/genética , Datos de Secuencia Molecular , Mutagénesis , Homología de Secuencia de AminoácidoRESUMEN
Hereditary combined vitamin K-dependent (VKD) coagulation factor deficiency is an autosomal recessive bleeding disorder associated with defects in either the gamma-carboxylase, which carboxylates VKD proteins to render them active, or the vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKORC1), which supplies the reduced vitamin K cofactor required for carboxylation. Such deficiencies are rare, and we report the fourth case resulting from mutations in the carboxylase gene, identified in a Tunisian girl who exhibited impaired function in hemostatic VKD factors that was not restored by vitamin K administration. Sequence analysis of the proposita did not identify any mutations in the VKORC1 gene but, remarkably, revealed 3 heterozygous mutations in the carboxylase gene that caused the substitutions Asp31Asn, Trp157Arg, and Thr591Lys. None of these mutations have previously been reported. Family analysis showed that Asp31Asn and Thr591Lys were coallelic and maternally transmitted while Trp157Arg was transmitted by the father, and a genomic screen of 100 healthy individuals ruled out frequent polymorphisms. Mutational analysis indicated wild-type activity for the Asp31Asn carboxylase. In contrast, the respective Trp157Arg and Thr591Lys activities were 8% and 0% that of wild-type carboxylase, and their compound heterozygosity can therefore account for functional VKD factor deficiency. The implications for carboxylase mechanism are discussed.