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BACKGROUND AND METHODS: A retrospective study of the national health profile of Eritreans, focusing on acute respiratory tract infection (ARTI), tuberculosis (TB), diarrhoea, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and HIV/AIDS, was done on data from 1998 to 2003 through a health information management system. Records were included for patients of all ages receiving outpatient and inpatient hospital services during the study period. All incidence rates were given as cases per 100,000 population. RESULTS: The incidence of ARTI increased from 6,500 cases per annum in 1998 to 8 500 in 2003, representing a 30% increase. Diarrhoea rates remained unchanged, averaging 3,000 cases. For both ARTI and diarrhoea, rates were at least 3 times higher in children under 5 years of age than in those over 5 years of age. The incidences of TB and STDs decreased from 370 and 220 in 1998 to 170 and 80 in 2003, respectively. HIV/AIDS incidence increased from 40 in 1998 to 65 in 2003, reflecting a 60% increase. The case fatality rates (CFRs) for HIV/AIDS and TB were 12% and 2% in 1998, increasing to 14% and 3%, respectively, in 2001. The CFR for ARTI and diarrhea remained low at 0.3%. CFRs were higher in children under 5 years than in those over 5 years for all the diseases but rates declined consistently, probably reflecting the positive impact of the introduction of the integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI). Although the incidence rate of HIV/AIDS was relatively low compared with rates for TB, ARTI and diarrhoea, the HIV/AIDS CFR was relatively high, posing a threat to the gains made in control of infectious diseases. The disease burden from TB and STDs declined over the 6-year study period, while that from ARTI and HIV/AIDS increased. Consequently the overall disease burden from communicable diseases remained unchanged over the study period.

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The prevalence of cardiovascular diseases has been shown to be on the increase in Africa based on hospital-based information and limited national surveys. A recent report on analysis of data from Health Information Management Systems (HIMS) highlighted an increasing burden of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) in Eritrea, with the incidence of hypertension doubling in a space of 6 years. HMIS data are only a proxy of national prevalence rates, necessitating the conduct of national surveys. The WHO STEPwise approach to surveillance of NCDs was used for the national NCD risk factor survey in 2004. This report focuses on blood pressure (BP) and obesity (body mass index (BMI) > 30 kg/m2) as NCD risk factors in Eritrea. A total of 2352 people in age groups 15 to 64 years participated in the survey. The prevalence of hypertension defined as BP > 140/90 mmHg was 15.9% in the general population, with 16.4% in urban and 14.5% in rural areas, 17% of whom were males while 15% were females. BMI was positively associated with systolic (SBP), diastolic and mean arterial pressure. Although the prevalence of obesity (3.3%) was higher in females, the effect of BMI on BP was higher in males than in females (regression coefficient 0.64 and 0.38, respectively, P < or = 0.05), especially in those >45 years. BMI did not have a significant effect on BP in lean people (BMI < 19) and in those with high BMI, but was positively correlated to SBP in those with normal BMI (P < or = 0.02). BMI and age appear to play a synergistic role in creating a strong association with BP.

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OBJECTIVES: The study examined the factors associated with recurrent cholera epidemics in Kano State of Northern Nigeria, the management of the epidemics and health outcomes. METHODS: Using epidemiological data from the Public Health Department of the Kano State Ministry of Health, the study examined the frequency and geographical distribution of the epidemics for the period 1995 to 2001; procedures for detection; control measures as well as results of biological and bacteriological testing of water from different sources. Mapping and testing for significance of faecal contamination of water sources were done. RESULTS: The number of cholera cases in the city was 2 630; 847 and 2 347 in 1995/6, 1997 and 1999 respectively. The State Epidemiological Unit which is responsible for surveillance detected epidemics using set thresholds and activated multi-sectoral emergency responses. Control measures encompassed accurate diagnosis at the reference laboratory, Kaduna; registration of cases; case management and public health measures targeting personal hygiene and water treatment. The cholera epidemics attracted worldwide attention with emergency responses from many agencies including WHO, UNICEF and Medicens Sand Frontiers (MSF). Case fatality rates decreased from 15% in 1995/6 to 5% in 1997 and 2% in 1999. The organism responsible for all the outbreaks was Vibrio cholerae, el-tor of inaba serotype. Water contamination of all sources was the principal cause of the epidemics. There were statistically significant differences in levels of faecal contamination of water sources, wells being most affected, followed by piped water, chi2 = 11.556, (p < 0.02). Bore holes were relatively safer sources of water. Point source epidemics always started from Kano City before fanning out to the rest of the State. CONCLUSION: Multi-sectoral Epidemic Preparedness and Response (EPR) approaches have contributed to the reduction in case fatality rates over the years and should be sustained. However, in order to prevent future cholera epidemics, there is need to introduce intervention measures that address the root problems of poor sanitation and unsafe water supplies.

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The Wellcome Tropical Institute has assisted countries in the tropics to establish viable systems of continuing medical education, particularly for young doctors practising in rural areas. As part of this strategy the Institute has developed material for use in distance learning. The first attempt to apply the problem-based learning approach to written material for use by an individual learner in the absence of a tutor led to a trial in Ghana, Kenya and Pakistan to compare a conventionally designed module with a problem-based learning module on the same topic for their respective acceptability, effectiveness and efficiency. The design, implementation and results of these three comparative trials are presented.

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The Wellcome Tropical Institute has assisted countries in the tropics to establish viable systems of continuing medical education; particularly for young doctors practising in rural areas. As part of this strategy the Institute has developed material for use in distance learning. The first attempt to apply the problem-based learning approach to written material for use by an individual learner in the absence of a tutor led to a trial in Ghana; Kenya and Pakistan to compare a conventionally designed module with a problem-based learning module on the same topic for their respective acceptability; effectiveness and efficiency. The design; implementation and results of these three comparative trials are presented

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Representatives from the Ministry of Health, the University of Nairobi and the Kenya Medical Association arranged a workshop in Nairobi in September, 1987 to ensure that policy makers, civil servants, academics and senior members of the medical profession would feel fully informed about the purpose and nature of distance learning. A further meeting was arranged for the supervisors and tutors who would be involved in the pilot project which was designed to validate the usefulness of distance learning materials prepared in London and to evaluate the organisational and educational aspects of the local system for distance learning. Ten rural medical officers, selected by the Ministry, met to be inducted at a briefing workshop in Mombasa. The medical officers were invited to study with three modules at their place of work during a period of six months and to complete a field project during the next six months. They were asked to keep a dairy, to use a notebook for critical comments on each module, and to complete two questionnaires. Their pre-test performance was compared with post-test performance. The results were analysed with a view to improving the modules and the local distance learning system.

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Dramatic changes have occurred in society since the Second World War. These include great advances in science and medicine. Such changes are likely to continue at an ever increasing rate. The changes and possible implications for health care delivery over the next fifty years are discussed. These changes and their potential implications place special demands on doctors since many will still be in active practice well into the next century. To meet the challenge doctors will need to adapt to and participate in change. Continuing medical education should, therefore, aim to assist doctors to adapt to and participate in change.

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In order to describe the prevalence of HIV antibodies and AIDS in West Kenya, serological tests, including ELISA, and in some cases immunoblotting, were performed on whole blood collected on filter paper from 603 Kenyans. Serum samples from 55 of these persons underwent the same examinations, and 45 were further examined by immunofluorescence and a commercial ELISA. The majority of the Kenyans examined were residents of a province in West Kenya, while the others were students from other parts of Kenya, predominantly rural areas. Male/female ratio was 62/38. Median age was 18 years (range 0-70). Five Danes with previously demonstrated HIV antibodies, and 10 Danish controls were examined for HIV antibodies in filter paper whole blood, and in serum by ELISA and immunoblotting. The tests carried out on the filter paper blood were found to be reliable. Only one of the examined Kenyans had antibodies to HIV by both ELISA and immunoblotting, representing a prevalence of 0.17% (95% confidence limits: 0.00-0.93%). This low prevalence is not in accord with results previously presented from rural districts in Kenya.

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