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Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is a well-known cause of hospital-acquired infectious diarrhea in developed countries, though it has not been a top priority in the healthcare policies of developing countries. In the last decade, several studies have reported a wide range of CDI rates between 1.3% and 96% in developing nations, raising the concern that this could represent a healthcare threat for these nations. This review defines developing countries as those with a human development index (HDI) below 0.8. We aim to report the available literature on CDI epidemiology, diagnostics, management, and prevention in developing countries. We identify limitations for CDI diagnosis and management, such as limited access to CDI tests and unavailable oral vancomycin formulation, and identify opportunities to enhance CDI care, such as increased molecular test capabilities and creative solutions for CDI. We also discuss infection prevention strategies, including antimicrobial stewardship programs and opportunities emerging from the COVID-19 pandemic, which could impact CDI care.

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In a 12-year single-center quasi-experimental study, a switch from ciprofloxacin to ceftriaxone prophylaxis for transrectal ultrasound-guided prostate biopsy procedures was associated with a significant reduction in 30-day postprocedure urinary tract infection, urinary tract infection-related hospitalizations, antibiotic prescriptions, and isolation of fluoroquinolone-resistant organisms from urine or blood cultures.

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Clostridioides (formerly Clostridium) difficile is responsible for a substantial burden of nosocomial infection. Recurrent C. difficile infection (rCDI) remains a concern due to its high morbidity, mortality, and cost. Despite the updated 2017 IDSA C. difficile treatment guidelines, there remains a lack of well-studied preventive control measures and treatment modalities for rCDI. There are ongoing efforts to develop novel therapies, such as new antibiotics with a lesser impact on gut microbiota and more targeted therapies, such as bacteriotherapy. This mini review highlights key rCDI management updates, preventive measures and ongoing research on novel treatment strategies including bacteriotherapy.

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BACKGROUND: To optimize utility of laboratory testing for Clostridiodes difficile infection (CDI), the 2017 Infectious Diseases Society of America-Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (IDSA-SHEA) clinical practice guidelines recommend excluding patients from stool testing for C. difficile if they have received laxatives within the preceding 48 hours. Sparse data support this recommendation. METHODS: Patients with new-onset diarrhea (≥3 bowel movements in any 24-hour period in the 48 hours before stool collection) and a positive stool C. difficile nucleic acid amplification test were enrolled. Laxative use within 48 hours before stool testing, severity of illness (defined by 4 distinct scoring methods), and clinical outcomes were recorded. RESULTS: 209 patients with CDI were studied, 65 of whom had received laxatives. There were no significant differences in the proportion of patients meeting severe CDI criteria by 4 severity scoring methods in patients receiving versus not receiving laxatives (66.2% vs 56.3%, respectively; P = .224) by IDSA-SHEA, the primary scoring system. Similar rates of serious outcomes attributable to CDI, including death, intensive care unit admission, and colectomy, were observed in the laxative and no laxative groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our study found similar rates of severe CDI and serious CDI-attributable clinical outcomes in CDI-diagnosed patients who did or did not receive laxatives. Precluding recent laxative users from CDI testing, as proposed by the IDSA-SHEA guideline, carries a potential for harm due to delayed diagnosis and treatment.

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RESUMEN Con el objetivo de determinar la frecuencia de colonización por el enterococo resistente a vancomicina (ERV), el genotipo de resistencia y los factores asociados, se realizó un estudio de tipo transversal durante noviembre y diciembre del 2013 en el Hospital Nacional Cayetano Heredia en Lima, Perú. Se encontró una frecuencia de colonización por ERV de 6,2% (IC 95%: 1,67-10,73), todas las cepas aisladas tenían el genotipo de resistencia vanA, y se halló que las variables hospitalización previa (p=0,001) y el uso de cefalosporinas de tercera generación (p=0,016) estaban asociadas a la colonización por ERV. En conclusión, existe colonización perianal por ERV en los diversos servicios de hospitalización, el gen vanA podría ser transmitido a gérmenes más virulentos y ocasionar la aparición de la bacteria Staphylococcus aureus resistente a vancomicina (VRSA). Es necesario adoptar medidas de control de infecciones para evitar la transmisión de esta bacteria en el ambiente hospitalario.

ABSTRACT This cross-sectional study was conducted from November to December of 2013 at the Cayetano Heredia National Hospital in Lima, Peru, to determine the rate of infection with vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE), the resistance genotype, and associated factors. The rate of infection with VRE was 6.2% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.67-10.73) and the resistance genotype isolated from all strains was the vanA gene. The factors associated with colonization with VRE were previous hospitalizations (p = 0.001) and the use of third-generation cephalosporins (p = 0.016). In conclusion, perianal colonization with VRE is present in many hospital services. Moreover, the vanA gene may cause resistance to vancomycin and promote the development of vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Therefore, infection control measures should be adopted to prevent the dissemination of this bacterial strain in hospital settings.

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Multidrug-resistant organism (MDRO) infections cause high morbidity and mortality, and high costs to patients and hospitals. The study aims were to determine the frequency of MDRO colonization and associated factors in patients with lower-extremity wounds with colonization. A cross-sectional study was designed during November 2015 to July 2016 in a tertiary care hospital in Lima, Peru. A wound swab was obtained for culture and susceptibility testing. MDRO colonization was defined if the culture grew with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-resistant enterococci, and/or extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) microorganisms. The frequency of MDRO wound colonization was 26.8% among the 97 patients enrolled. The most frequent MDRO obtained was ESBL-producing Escherichia coli, which was significantly more frequent in chronic wounds versus acute wounds (17.2% versus 0%, P < 0.05). Infection control measures should be implemented when patients with chronic lower-extremity wounds are admitted.

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This cross-sectional study was conducted from November to December of 2013 at the Cayetano Heredia National Hospital in Lima, Peru, to determine the rate of infection with vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE), the resistance genotype, and associated factors. The rate of infection with VRE was 6.2% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.67-10.73) and the resistance genotype isolated from all strains was the vanA gene. The factors associated with colonization with VRE were previous hospitalizations (p = 0.001) and the use of third-generation cephalosporins (p = 0.016). In conclusion, perianal colonization with VRE is present in many hospital services. Moreover, the vanA gene may cause resistance to vancomycin and promote the development of vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Therefore, infection control measures should be adopted to prevent the dissemination of this bacterial strain in hospital settings.

Con el objetivo de determinar la frecuencia de colonización por el enterococo resistente a vancomicina (ERV), el genotipo de resistencia y los factores asociados, se realizó un estudio de tipo transversal durante noviembre y diciembre del 2013 en el Hospital Nacional Cayetano Heredia en Lima, Perú. Se encontró una frecuencia de colonización por ERV de 6,2% (IC 95%: 1,67-10,73), todas las cepas aisladas tenían el genotipo de resistencia vanA, y se halló que las variables hospitalización previa (p=0,001) y el uso de cefalosporinas de tercera generación (p=0,016) estaban asociadas a la colonización por ERV. En conclusión, existe colonización perianal por ERV en los diversos servicios de hospitalización, el gen vanA podría ser transmitido a gérmenes más virulentos y ocasionar la aparición de la bacteria Staphylococcus aureus resistente a vancomicina (VRSA). Es necesario adoptar medidas de control de infecciones para evitar la transmisión de esta bacteria en el ambiente hospitalario.

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