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Kombucha is a fermented beverage derived from a sweetened tea fermentation inoculated with a bacteria-yeast consortium referred to as Symbiotic Culture of Bacteria and Yeast (SCOBY). Different SCOBY cultures can impact the beverage's quality and make the whole process highly variable. Adding Saccharomyces yeast cultures to the fermentation process can avoid stalled fermentations, providing a reproducible beverage. Here, we explored using different Saccharomyces eubayanus strains together with SCOBY in the context of kombucha fermentation. Our results show that yeast x SCOBY co-cultures exhibited a robust fermentation profile, providing ethanol and acetic acid levels ranging from 0,18-1,81 %v/v and 0,35-1,15 g/L, respectively. The kombucha volatile compound profile of co-cultures was unique, where compounds such as Isopentyl acetate where only found in yeast x SCOBY fermentations. Metabarcoding revealed that the SCOBY composition was also dependent on the S. eubayanus genotype, where besides Saccharomyces, amplicon sequence variants belonging to Brettanomyces and Starmerella were detected. These differences concomitated global changes in transcript levels in S. eubayanus related to the metabolism of organic molecules used in kombucha fermentation. This study highlights the potential for exploring different S. eubayanus strains for kombucha fermentation, and the significant yeast genotype effect in the profile differentiation in this process.

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Although the typical genomic and phenotypic changes that characterize the evolution of organisms under the human domestication syndrome represent textbook examples of rapid evolution, the molecular processes that underpin such changes are still poorly understood. Domesticated yeasts for brewing, where short generation times and large phenotypic and genomic plasticity were attained in a few generations under selection, are prime examples. To experimentally emulate the lager yeast domestication process, we created a genetically complex (panmictic) artificial population of multiple Saccharomyces eubayanus genotypes, one of the parents of lager yeast. Then, we imposed a constant selection regime under a high ethanol concentration in 10 replicated populations during 260 generations (6 months) and compared them with propagated controls exposed solely to glucose. Propagated populations exhibited a selection differential of 60% in growth rate in ethanol, mostly explained by the proliferation of a single lineage (CL248.1) that competitively displaced all other clones. Interestingly, the outcome does not require the entire time-course of adaptation, as four lineages monopolized the culture at generation 120. Sequencing demonstrated that de novo genetic variants were produced in all propagated lines, including SNPs, aneuploidies, INDELs and translocations. In addition, the different propagated populations showed correlated responses resembling the domestication syndrome: genomic rearrangements, faster fermentation rates, lower production of phenolic off-flavours and lower volatile compound complexity. Expression profiling in beer wort revealed altered expression levels of genes related to methionine metabolism, flocculation, stress tolerance and diauxic shift, likely contributing to higher ethanol and fermentation stress tolerance in the evolved populations. Our study shows that experimental evolution can rebuild the brewing domestication process in 'fast motion' in wild yeast, and also provides a powerful tool for studying the genetics of the adaptation process in complex populations.

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Autochthonous microorganisms are an important source of the distinctive metabolites that influence the chemical profile of wine. However, little is known about the diversity of fungal communities associated with grape musts, even though they are the source of local yeast strains with potential capacities to become starters during fermentation. By using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) amplicon sequencing, we identified the taxonomic structure of the yeast community in unfermented and fermented musts of a typical Vitis vinifera L. var. Sauvignon blanc from the Central Valley of Chile throughout two consecutive seasons of production. Unsurprisingly, Saccharomyces represented the most abundant fungal genus in unfermented and fermented musts, mainly due to the contribution of S. uvarum (42.7%) and S. cerevisiae (80%). Unfermented musts were highly variable between seasons and showed higher values of fungal diversity than fermented musts. Since microbial physiological characterization is primarily achieved in culture, we isolated nine species belonging to six genera of fungi from the unfermented must samples. All isolates were characterized for their potential capacities to be used as new starters in wine. Remarkably, only Metschnikowia pulcherrima could co-exist with a commercial Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain under fermentative conditions, representing a feasible candidate strain for wine production.

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The utilization of S. eubayanus has recently become a topic of interest due to the novel organoleptic properties imparted to beer. However, the utilization of S. eubayanus in brewing requires the comprehension of the mechanisms that underlie fermentative differences generated from its natural genetic variability. Here, we evaluated fermentation performance and volatile compound production in ten genetically distinct S. eubayanus strains in a brewing fermentative context. The evaluated strains showed a broad phenotypic spectrum, some of them exhibiting a high fermentation capacity and high levels of volatile esters and/or higher alcohols. Subsequently, we obtained molecular profiles by generating 'end-to-end' genome assemblies, as well as metabolome and transcriptome profiling of two Patagonian isolates exhibiting significant differences in beer aroma profiles. These strains showed clear differences in concentrations of intracellular metabolites, including amino acids, such as valine, leucine and isoleucine, likely impacting the production of 2-methylpropanol and 3-methylbutanol. These differences in the production of volatile compounds are attributed to gene expression variation, where the most profound differentiation is attributed to genes involved in assimilatory sulfate reduction, which in turn validates phenotypic differences in H2 S production. This study lays a solid foundation for future research to improve fermentation performance and select strains for new lager styles based on aroma and metabolic profiles.

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Penicillium purpurogenum is a filamentous fungus, which grows on a variety of natural carbon sources and secretes a large number of enzymes involved in cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin biodegradation. The purpose of this work has been to identify potential lignocellulolytic enzymes and to compare the secreted enzymes produced when the fungus is grown on sugar beet pulp (rich in cellulose and pectin) and corn cob (rich in cellulose and xylan). Culture supernatants were subjected to two-dimensional nano-liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Using MASCOT and a genome-derived protein database, the proteins present in the supernatant were identified. The putative function in the degradation of the polysaccharides was determined using dbCAN software. The results show that there is a good correlation between the polysaccharide composition of the carbon sources and the function of the secreted enzymes: both cultures are rich in cellulases, while sugar beet pulp induces pectinases and corncob, xylanases. The eventual biochemical characterisation of these enzymes will be of value for a better understanding of the biodegradation process performed by the fungus and increase the availability of enzymes for biotechnological methods associated with this process.

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The high lignocellulolytic activity displayed by the soft-rot fungus Penicillium purpurogenum has made it a target for the study of novel lignocellulolytic enzymes. We have obtained a reference genome of 36.2 Mb of non-redundant sequence (11,057 protein-coding genes). The 49 largest scaffolds cover 90% of the assembly, and Core Eukaryotic Genes Mapping Approach (CEGMA) analysis reveals that our assembly captures almost all protein-coding genes. RNA-seq was performed and 93.1% of the reads aligned to the assembled genome. These data, plus the independent sequencing of a set of genes of lignocellulose-degrading enzymes, validate the quality of the genome sequence. P. purpurogenum shows a higher number of proteins with CAZy motifs, transcription factors and transporters as compared to other sequenced Penicillia. These results demonstrate the great potential for lignocellulolytic activity of this fungus and the possible use of its enzymes in related industrial applications.

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Wine production is an important commercial issue for the liquor industry. The global production was estimated at 275.7 million hectoliters in 2015. The loss of wine production due to Brettanomyces bruxellensis contamination is currently a problem. This yeast causes a "horse sweat" flavor in wine, which is an undesired organoleptic attribute. To date, 6 B. bruxellensis annotated genome sequences are available (LAMAP2480, AWRI1499, AWRI1608, AWRI1613, ST05.12/22, and CBS2499), and whole genome comparisons between strains are limited. In this article, we reassembled and reannotated the genome of B. bruxellensis LAMAP2480, obtaining a 27-Mb assembly with 5.5 kb of N50. In addition, the genome of B. bruxellensis LAMAP2480 was analyzed in the context of spoilage yeast and potential as a biotechnological tool. In addition, we carried out an exploratory transcriptomic analysis of this strain grown in synthetic wine. Several genes related to stress tolerance, micronutrient acquisition, ethanol production, and lignocellulose assimilation were found. In conclusion, the analysis of the genome of B. bruxellensis LAMAP2480 reaffirms the biotechnological potential of this strain. This research represents an interesting platform for the study of the spoilage yeast B. bruxellensis.

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Arabinan is a component of pectin, which is one of the polysaccharides present in lignocelluose. The enzymes degrading the main chain of arabinan are the endo- (EC 3.2.1.99) and exo-arabinanases (3.2.1.-). Only three exo-arabinanases have been biochemically characterized; they belong to glycosyl hydrolase family 93. In this work, the cDNA of an exo-arabinanase (Arap2) from Penicillium purpurogenum has been heterologously expressed in Pichia pastoris. The gene is 1310 bp long, has three introns and codes for a protein of 380 amino acid residues; the mature protein has a calculated molecular mass of 39 823 Da. The heterologously expressed Arap2 has a molecular mass in the range of 60-80 kDa due to heterogeneous glycosylation. The enzyme is active on debranched arabinan with optimum pH of 4-5.5 and optimal temperature of 40 °C, and has an exo-type action mode, releasing arabinobiose from its substrates. The expression profile of arap2 in corncob and sugar beet pulp follows a different pattern and is not related to the presence of arabinan. This is the first exo-arabinanase studied from P. purpurogenum and the first expressed in yeast. The availability of heterologous Arap2 may be useful for biotechnological applications requiring acidic conditions.

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The degradation of xylan requires the action of glycanases and esterases which hydrolyse, in a synergistic fashion, the main chain and the different substituents which decorate its structure. Among the xylanolytic enzymes acting on side-chains are the α-glucuronidases (AguA) (E.C. 3.2.1.139) which release methyl glucuronic acid residues. These are the least studies among the xylanolytic enzymes. In this work, the gene and cDNA of an α-glucuronidase from a newly isolated strain of Aspergillus fumigatus have been sequenced, and the gene has been expressed in Pichia pastoris. The gene is 2523 bp long, has no introns and codes for a protein of 840 amino acid residues including a putative signal peptide of 19 residues. The mature protein has a calculated molecular weight of 91,725 and shows 99 % identity with a putative α-glucuronidase from A. fumigatus A1163. The recombinant enzyme was expressed with a histidine tag and was purified to near homogeneity with a nickel nitriloacetic acid (Ni-NTA) column. The purified enzyme has a molecular weight near 100,000. It is inactive using birchwood glucuronoxylan as substrate. Activity is observed in the presence of xylooligosaccharides generated from this substrate by a family 10 endoxylanase and when a mixture of aldouronic acids are used as substrates. If, instead, family 11 endoxylanase is used to generate oligosaccharides, no activity is detected, indicating a different specificity in the cleavage of xylan by family 10 and 11 endoxylanases. Enzyme activity is optimal at 37 °C and pH 4.5-5. The enzyme binds cellulose, thus it likely possesses a carbohydrate binding module. Based on its properties and sequence similarities the catalytic module of the newly described α-glucuronidase can be classified in family 67 of the glycosyl hydrolases. The recombinant enzyme may be useful for biotechnological applications of α-glucuronidases.

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