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This study analyzes the impact of certain cognitive processes on word and pseudoword reading in languages with different orthographic consistency (Spanish and Arabic) in the first year of Primary Education. The study was conducted with a group of 113 pupils from Algeria and another group of 128 pupils from Ecuador, from a middle-class background and without any special education needs. The participants were assessed in terms of their reading ability of words and pseudowords, knowledge of letters, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and phonological memory. Using a correlational design, descriptive-exploratory, bivariate, and hierarchical multivariate regressions were applied to the different measures of reading in each language. The findings show that knowledge of letters, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and phonological memory contribute differently to the explanation of reading ability in each group at the start of compulsory schooling. These results have important implications for the teaching of reading skills and the prevention of specific learning disabilities, as well as the theory of reading acquisition.

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The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between the type of delivery (vaginal or caesarean), as a risk factor, and the likelihood of having learning disabilities in reading (reading accuracy) and writing (phonetic and visual orthography), controlling for the interaction and/or confounding effect of gestational, obstetric, and neonatal variables (maternal age at delivery, gestational age, foetal presentation, Apgar 1, and newborn weight) among six-year-old children born in twin births. In this retrospective cohort study, the exposed and non-exposed cohorts consisted of children born by caesarean section and vaginal delivery, respectively. A total of 124 children born in twin births were evaluated in year one of primary education. Intelligence was measured using the K-BIT test; reading and writing variables were evaluated using the Evalúa-1 battery of tests, and clinical records were used to measure gestational, obstetric, and neonatal variables. Binary logistic regressions applied to each dependent variable indicated that caesarean delivery is a possible independent risk factor for difficulties in reading accuracy and phonetic and visual orthography. Future research using larger samples of younger children is required to analyse the relationship between obstetric and neonatal variables and the different basic indicators of reading and writing.

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The objective of this study is to determine the contribution made by knowledge of letters, phonological awareness, phonological memory, and alphanumeric and non-alphanumeric rapid automatized naming at the ages of six and seven to the ability of Spanish children to read words at 7 years of age. A total of 116 Spanish-speaking school children took part in the study, from schools located in an average socio-cultural setting, without special educational needs. The reading ability of these pupils was evaluated at the age of seven, and cognitive variables were assessed at 6 and 7 years of age. Descriptive-exploratory analyses, bivariate analyses, and multivariate regressions were performed. The results show that cognitive variables measured at these ages contribute differently to the ability to read words at 7 years of age. Rapid naming does not seem to influence word reading; knowledge of letters no longer influences word reading as children grow older; and phonological awareness and phonological memory maintain their contribution to the explanation of word reading. These results indicate that reading in Spanish depends on different cognitive variables and that this relationship varies according to age. The findings have key educational implications in terms of teaching reading skills and the prevention of specific learning difficulties in Spanish Primary Education.

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This study analyses, in children born in twin births, the relationship between reading, writing and arithmetic learning, on the one hand, and type of delivery, on the other, controlling for the effect of interaction and/or confusion of third variables (maternal age at delivery, gestational age, fetal position, birthweight, 1-min Apgar score). In the planned retrospective cohort design, the exposed cohort consisted of children born by caesarean section, and the non-exposed cohort was comprised of children born vaginally. One hundred and twenty-four children born of twin births were evaluated during their first year of primary school: K-BIT tests were used to measure intelligence; the Evalúa-1 battery was used to assess reading, writing, and arithmetic ability; and the children's clinical histories were analysed for obstetric and neonatal variables. After applying binary logistic regressions for each dependent variable, it was found that caesarean delivery in twin births appeared as a possible independent risk factor for specific learning disabilities (LDs) in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Based on these results, further research using larger samples and at more advanced ages is required in order to analyse the influence of obstetric and neonatal variables on the processes underlying specific LDs.

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Based on a retrospective cohort design with 6-year-old children born in twin births, the relationship between verbal, non-verbal, global neuropsychological development, general intelligence and type of delivery has been studied. To this end, the possible effect of third gestational, obstetric and neonatal variables, such as maternal age at delivery, fetal presentation, gestational age, newborn weight and Apgar at minute one, was controlled. The exposed cohort includes children born by cesarean section, and the unexposed cohort is composed of children born vaginally with or without induction. A total of 124 children were evaluated in their 1st year of primary school using the Child Neuropsychological Maturity Questionnaire, Kaufman's Intelligence Test and the medical histories of the children collected after birth. By means of binary logistic regression analysis, it has been found that the type of delivery is presented as an independent risk factor for disorders in verbal, non-verbal and global development and for the general intellectual difficulties of children born of multiple births. These results suggest the need to analyze in future prospective studies with broader samples the relationship between different types of obstetric and perinatal variables of birth type and infant neuropsychological development and general intelligence, in order to prevent possible psychological alterations from birth.

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The main objective is to examine the influence of oxytocin administration during delivery on psychomotor development at age five years. This was a retrospective cohort study involving two groups: children of mothers exposed vs. not exposed to oxytocin during labor. Of the 7,465 newborns registered in our maternity service during 2006 we randomly selected an initial sample of 400 children. Of these, 146 children were assessed using the motor scale of the Battelle Developmental Inventory. Other predictor variables that could potentially act as confounders and/or interact with the main relationship were also examined. The data were subjected to bivariate analysis, estimates of measures of strength of association, stratified analysis and multivariate binary logistic regression. The results indicate that exposure to synthetic oxytocin during delivery is an independent risk factor for a delay in gross and fine motor development. This was the case after controlling for the variables duration of labor and sex of the newborn, none of which modified the effect of oxytocin on gross and fine motor development. However, sex of the newborn were shown to be confounding gross motor development. In light of these results, and with the aim of preventing possible psychomotor alterations, further studies are now needed to analyze the effect that the oxytocin dose and the duration of perfusion may have on children's subsequent development.

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The aims of this study is to examine whether global dominance depends on the opening size of the stimulus with concentric hierarchical figures and orientation classification task and to determine the role of the salience of global opening and its coincidence with vertical symmetry axis of context. In the first experiment, participants had to indicate the opening direction of stimuli, which were open-left and open-right figures. Three openings were included: 10, 25 and 50% of the total circle perimeter. The results showed a local advantage with stimuli of 10%, absence of global or local advantage with stimuli of 25% and global advantage with stimuli of 50%. In the second experiment, stimuli with an opening of 50% were presented randomly in several positions in the visual field in order to avoid the coincidence of global opening with the vertical symmetry axis of context. The results showed an absence of global or local advantage. These findings indicate that global dominance with orientation classification task depends on stimulus characteristics such as opening size, and strategies used in visual recognition.

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El objetivo del presente trabajo es averiguar si la dominancia global está en función del grado de apertura del estímulo en tareas de categorización de la orientación y el papel que desempeña la saliencia de la apertura global y su coincidencia con los ejes de simetría verticales del contexto. En el primer experimento se introdujeron estímulos jerárquicos concéntricos abiertos a la derecha o izquierda, en los que los participantes debían indicar la dirección de la apertura. Se incluyeron aperturas del 10, 25 y 50% del contorno total de la circunferencia. Los resultados mostraron ventaja local con estímulos del 10%, ausencia de ventaja global o local con estímulos del 25% y ventaja global con los del 50%. En el segundo experimento se introdujeron estímulos con apertura del 50%, presentados aleatoriamente en diversas posiciones del campo visual con el objetivo de anular la coincidencia de la apertura de la figura global con ejes de simetría vertical del contexto. Los resultados muestran una ausencia de ventaja global. Estos hallazgos muestran que la dominancia global con tareas de categorización de la orientación está en función de características del estímulo, como el grado de apertura, y de estrategias que se utilicen en el reconocimiento visual (AU)

The aims of this study is to examine whether global dominance depends on the opening size of the stimulus with concentric hierarchical figures and orientation classification task and to determine the role of the salience of global opening and its coincidence with vertical symmetry axis of context. In the first experiment, participants had to indicate the opening direction of stimuli, which were open-left and open-right figures. Three openings were included: 10, 25 and 50% of the total circle perimeter. The results showed a local advantage with stimuli of 10%, absence of global or local advantage with stimuli of 25% and global advantage with stimuli of 50%. In the second experiment, stimuli with an opening of 50% were presented randomly in several positions in the visual fi eld in order to avoid the coincidence of global opening with the vertical symmetry axis of context. The results showed an absence of global or local advantage. These findings indicate that global dominance with orientation classification task depends on stimulus characteristics such as opening size, and strategies used in visual recognition (AU)

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Prior studies have suggested the existence of global dominance for tasks involving decisions of stimuli orientation. This research used hierarchical stimuli, consisting of open-left and open-right semicircles, where participants had to indicate the direction of opening. The aim of this paper is to ascertain whether the opening size of the stimulus is a variable that modulates global dominance found in previous studies. In Experiment I and II, stimuli were presented having an opening of 25% and 10% of the total circle perimeter, respectively. The data show that global advantage depends on the opening size and attention conditions. The results can be explained according to the implications the opening size has on the classification of stimuli according to orientation.

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Prior studies have suggested the existence of global dominance for tasks involving decisions of stimuli orientation. This research used hierarchical stimuli, consisting of open-left and open-right semicircles, where participants had to indicate the direction of opening. The aim of this paper is to ascertain whether the opening size of the stimulus is a variable that modulates global dominance found in previous studies. In Experiment I and II, stimuli were presented having an opening of 25% and 10% of the total circle perimeter, respectively. The data show that global advantage depends on the opening size and attention conditions. The results can be explained according to the implications the opening size has on the classification of stimuli according to orientation

Estudios previos han sugerido la existencia de dominancia global para tareas que implican decisiones sobre la orientación de estímulos jerárquicos concéntricos. Estas investigaciones han presentado estímulos consistentes en semicírculos abiertos hacia la derecha o hacia la izquierda, en los que los participantes debían indicar la dirección de la apertura. El objetivo del presente trabajo es comprobar si el tamaño de la apertura del estímulo es una variable que modula la dominancia global encontrada en estudios previos. En el experimento I se presentaron estímulos con una apertura del 25% del perímetro total del círculo. Los resultados muestran ventaja global en atención dividida y ausencia de ventaja global o local en atención selectiva, así como interferencia local unidireccional. En el experimento II se presentaron estímulos concéntricos con una apertura del 10% del perímetro total. Los datos muestran ventaja local en atención dividida y, al igual que en el experimento I, ausencia de ventaja global o local en atención selectiva. Los resultados se explican en función de las implicaciones que tiene el tamaño de la apertura para la clasificación de estímulos en función de la orientación

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The hypothesis of global precedence was investigated by manipulating the similarity between target and relevant level, and between target and global and local levels of hierarchical stimuli, both in divided and selective attention conditions. The similarity was measured on the basis of the amount of shared contour between two visual forms. The stimuli were circles, right-facing semicircles, i.e., 1/2 of the circumference missing, and right-facing partial circles with a 1/4 of the circumference missing. The circle was used as a target and, consequently, the similarity between target and semicircle and between it and the partial circle was 50% and 75%, respectively. In the divided attention condition, the results showed a local advantage in the two similarity conditions between target and distractor level (50% and 75%) and a bidirectional and symmetrical interference at both levels of similarity. However, in the 'selective attention condition', a local reaction time advantage was only found when the similarity between target and irrelevant level was of 50%. When attention was directed towards the global level, local interference increased depending on the decrease in the degree of the local level similarity. When the attention was directed towards the local level, there was global interference but it was independent of the degree of the global level similarity. These results show the importance of the physical shape of the local elements used in experiments with hierarchical stimuli, since they may determine the relative speed of global processing, facilitating or impairing it.

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Recientemente se ha sugerido que el análisis de los rasgos globales y locales depende de la demanda de la tarea experimental. Blanca, Luna, López, Zalabardo y Rando (en prensa) encontraron ventaja global con estímulos de alta densidad en tareas de categorización de la orientación izquierda/derecha y ausencia de ventaja global o local con tareas de detección de una figura-objetivo. El objetivo del presente experimento es comprobar si los resultados de Blanca et al. (en prensa) encontrados con tareas de categorización de la orientación se replican con estímulos jerárquicos que contienen un menor número de elementos locales. Si la demanda de la tarea es un factor influyente, entonces es de esperar que una reducción en la densidad estimular no afecte al procesamiento global, de forma que aparezca la ventaja global encontrada con estímulos de mayor densidad. En el experimento se instruye a los sujetos para que indiquen la dirección, izquierda o derecha, de la apertura de un semicírculo bajo condiciones de atención dividida o selectiva. Los estímulos se presentan hasta la respuesta del sujeto o durante 150 msg. Los resultados indican ventaja global en las dos condiciones de atención e independientemente del tiempo de exposición del estímulo, aportando datos a favor de una dominancia global en juicios sobre orientación. (AU)

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El presente experimento pretende analizar la influencia de la similitud de la identidad de los niveles de un estímulo jerárquico con la figura-objetivo en el procesamiento de los rasgos globales y locales, durante un tiempo de exposición limitado bajo tareas de atención dividida y selectiva. La similitud se manipuló en función de la cantidad de contorno compartido. Los estímulos fueron círculos y semicírculos con una apertura de 1/2 o de 1/4 de la circunferencia total. La figura objetivo fue el círculo y la similitud que éste mantenía con los semicírculos podía ser del 50% o del 75%. En relación con la tarea de atención dividida, los resultados muestran que no existe ventaja global ni local en tiempo de reacción, pero se evidencia una interferencia bidireccional y simétrica. Una mayor similitud del nivel irrelevante (nivel donde la figura-objetivo está ausente) provoca respuestas más lentas y afecta por igual al procesamiento de los niveles global y local. En la tarea de atención selectiva, se encuentran los mismos resultados en relación con la ventaja e interferencia. Sin embargo, una mayor similitud del nivel irrelevante (nivel no atendido) con la figura-objetivo provoca menores tiempos de reacción. Los resultados se comentan en términos de un efecto facilitador o inhibidor de la similitud según la demanda de la tarea experimental (AU)

The aim of the present experiment is to analyze, with a limited exposure duration, the effect of physical similarity between target and levels of a hierarchical stimulus on the global and local processing. Similarity was manipulated on the basis of the amount of the shared contour. The stimuli were circle and semicircle with a gap of 1/2 or 1/4 of the circumference. The circle was used as target and the similarity with de semicircles was either of 50% or 75%. In the divided attention task, the results showed neither a global nor a local advantage in RT, but the interference was bidirectional and symmetrical. The interference increased as a function of the increase in the degree of similarity between target and irrelevant level (target absent). In divided attention task, the same results were found in relation to advantage and interference, but the similarity had a different effect. The interference increased as a function of the decrease in the degree of similarity. The results are discussed in terms of a facilitating or inhibiting effect of similarity, depending on the demands of the experimental task (AU)

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