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Type 2 diabetes mellitus, which an outcome of impaired insulin action and its secretion, is concomitantly associated with lipid abnormalities. The study was designed to evaluate the combinational effect of omega-3 fatty acids (flax and fish oil) and glibenclamide on abnormal lipid profiles, increased blood glucose, and impaired liver and kidney functions in a high fat diet with low streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats, including its probable mechanism of action. The male Wistar rats (n = 48) were distributed into eight groups. All animal groups except the healthy received a high fat diet (HFD) for 90 days. Further, diabetes was developed by low dose STZ (35 mg/kg). Diabetic animals received, omega-3 fatty acids (500 mg/kg), along with glibenclamide (0.25 mg/kg). Both flax and fish oil intervention decreased (p ≤ 0.001) serum triglycerides and very low density lipoprotein and elevated (p ≤ 0.001) high density lipoprotein levels in diabetic rats. Total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein level was decreased (p ≤ 0.001) in fish oil-treated rats. However, it remained unaffected in the flax oil treatment group. Both flax and fish oil intervention downregulate the expression of fatty acid metabolism genes, transcription factors (sterol regulatory element-binding proteins-1c and nuclear factor-κß), and their regulatory genes i.e., acetyl-coA carboxylase alpha, fatty acid synthase, and tumor necrosis factors-α. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma gene expression was upregulated (p ≤ 0.001) in the fish oil treatment group. Whereas, carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 and fatty acid binding protein gene expression were upregulated (p ≤ 0.001) in both flax and fish oil intervention group.

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AIM: The present study investigates gender dependent effects of insulin resistance on lipid profile and adipocytokines in individuals with diabetes receiving oral antidiabetic drugs (OADs). The aim was also to reveal the changes in the expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism and inflammation. METHODS: Lipid profile, adipocytokine levels and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was assessed in 100 patients with diabetes (M = 43, F = 57) matched for age and gender with healthy individuals (M = 45, F = 55). The expression pattern of genes was analyzed by quantitative real time PCR. RESULTS: Males consuming metformin with other drugs exhibited a positive association between HOMA-IR and cholesterol, triglyceride and very low density lipoprotein (VLDL). Females consuming only metformin and metformin with other drugs, showed a positive association of HOMA-IR with cholesterol and a negative association with adiponectin. In males and females with diabetes, a comparable expression of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (PPARγ) while higher expression of sterol regulatory element binding protein 1 (SREBP1) was observed. Expression of fatty acid synthase (FAS), long chain acyl CoA Synthetases (ACSL), malonyl-CoA-acyl carrier protein transacylase (MCAT) and nuclear factor kappa ß (NFkß) was higher in men with diabetes than healthy males. Expression of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) was higher in males and females with diabetes than respective healthy genders. CONCLUSION: Insulin resistance adversely affects lipid profile, adipocytokines in males with type 2 diabetes. Expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism and inflammation is found to be undesirably and differentially altered in both the genders.

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Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a metabolic disorder characterized by impaired insulin action and its secretion. The objectives of the present study were to establish an economical and efficient animal model, mimicking pathophysiology of human T2DM to understand probable molecular mechanisms in context with lipid metabolism. In the present study, male Wistar rats were randomly divided into three groups. Animals were fed with high fat diet (HFD) except healthy control (HC) for 12 weeks. After eight weeks, intra peritoneal glucose tolerance test was performed. After confirmation of glucose intolerance, diabetic control (DC) group was injected with streptozotocin (STZ) (35 mg/kg b.w., i.p.). HFD fed rats showed increase (p ≤ 0.001) in glucose tolerance and HOMA-IR as compared to HC. Diabetes rats showed abnormal (p ≤ 0.001) lipid profile as compared to HC. The hepatocyte expression of transcription factors SREBP-1c and NFκß, and their target genes were found to be upregulated, while PPAR-γ, CPT1A and FABP expressions were downregulated as compared to the HC. A number of animal models have been raised for studying T2DM, but the study has been restricted to only the biochemical level. The model is validated at biochemical, molecular and histopathological levels, which can be used for screening new therapeutics for the effective management of T2DM.

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INTRODUCTION: Indian phenotype includes higher waist circumference despite lower body mass index, thereby making Indians more prone to diabetes and its complications. AIM: The present study aimed to analyze the serum levels of adiponectin and leptin in the participants with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity and their correlation with hypertension and dyslipidemia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In the study, 50 diabetics and 50 controls aged between 40 and 60 years were included in the study. RESULTS: Adiponectin levels were significantly higher in diabetics than in nondiabetic participants irrespective of gender (P ≤ 0.04 in males, P ≤ 0.02 in females). Leptin levels were significantly higher in diabetics compared to nondiabetics (P ≤ 0.001) in both males and females. CONCLUSION: Adiponectin and leptin levels may be used as important clinical markers for T2DM and obesity.

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Adiponectin is an important adipocytokine secreted chiefly by fat containing adipocytes, and plays a crucial role in glucose and lipid metabolism, inflammation and oxidative stress. Alterations in adiponectin levels have been shown to directly affect lipid and glucose metabolism that further increase the synthesis of lipids, free fatty acids and inflammatory cytokines. Changes in adiponectin levels also contribute to insulin resistance, obesity, cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. In the present review, we provide a comprehensive evaluation of the role of adiponectin and its molecular mechanisms in metabolic syndrome. Clinical improvement in adiponectin levels have been shown to positively modulate lipid and glucose metabolism, thus further substantiating its role in regulation of lipid and glucose metabolism. Currently adiponectin is being investigated as a potential therapeutic target for metabolic syndrome, although more research is required to understand the underlying mechanisms controlling adiponectin levels, including dietary and lifestyle interventions, that may target adiponectin as a therapeutic intervention in metabolic syndrome.

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INTRODUCTION: The high protein value, essential minerals, dietary fibre and notable ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen make chickpea a highly remunerative crop, particularly in low-input food production systems. Of the variety of constraints challenging chickpea productivity worldwide, salinity remains of prime concern owing to the intrinsic sensitivity of the crop. In view of the projected expansion of chickpea into arable and salt-stressed land by 2050, increasing attention is being placed on improving the salt tolerance of this crop. Considerable effort is currently underway to address salinity stress and substantial breeding progress is being made despite the seemingly highly-complex and environment-dependent nature of the tolerance trait. CONCLUSION: This review aims to provide a holistic view of recent advances in breeding chickpea for salt tolerance. Initially, we focus on the identification of novel genetic resources for salt tolerance via extensive germplasm screening. We then expand on the use of genome-wide and cost-effective techniques to gain new insights into the genetic control of salt tolerance, including the responsive genes/QTL(s), gene(s) networks/cross talk and intricate signalling cascades.

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Context • Guduchi Satwa is an Ayurvedic formulation prepared from Tinospora species. It has been used since ancient times to treat liver disorders. Objectives • The study intended to assess the hepatoprotective potential of Satwa prepared from 3 forms of Tinospora against alcohol-induced hepatotoxicity. Design • Male, albino Wistar rats were divided into 6 groups, with 6 rats each: 3 control groups-healthy controls, negative controls, and positive controls-and 3 intervention groups-Tinospora cordifolia, Tinospora sinensis, and Neem-Guduchi. Setting • The study was carried out at the Animal House facility of Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University's Medical College (Maharashtra, India). Intervention • Hepatotoxicity was induced by repeated dosing with alcohol for 15 d for all groups except for the healthy controls. To induce hepatotoxicity, the 5 groups received 1 mL of 30% alcohol PO per 100 g of body weight per day. The healthy controls and the negative controls received no hepatoprotective treatments. The other 4 groups received the dosing with alcohol 30 min after the hepatoprotective treatment, which they also received for 15 d: (1) positive controls-100 mg of silymarin per kg of body weight per day PO; (2) intervention group 1 (T cordifolia group)-200 mg of T cordifolia per kg of body weight per day PO; (3) intervention group 2 (T sinensis group)-200 mg of T sinensis per kg of body weight per day PO; and (4) intervention group 3 (Neem-Guduchi group)-200 mg of Neem-Guduchi per kg of body weight per day PO. Outcome Measures • Serum and liver tissue were used for biochemical analysis. Results • For the negative and positive control groups and the 3 intervention groups, the repeated dosing with alcohol produced elevations in the levels of liver-marker enzymes and changes in the lipid-profile status of the animals. Satwa from T cordifolia had a specific action in maintaining the lipid profile: total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, and very low-density lipoprotein. Improvement in the hepatic function, normalization of the lipid profile in the serum and liver, and improvements in the levels of antioxidant enzymes and oxidative-stress markers were observed in the animals treated with T sinensis Satwa. Neem-Guduchi Satwa was found to have a specific action in maintaining the lipid profile. The differential hepatoprotective effect of that Satwa was also evident from the liver histology. Conclusions • The data suggest that the 3 Satwa might be used in combination as a liver tonic that can help restore and strengthen the liver functions. The current study shows that the combination has the potential to be an effective liver tonic in animals. Scientific data from clinical trials of the 3 Satwa are not available. Systematic clinical trials are required that can yield information on their effects in humans.

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AIM: The impact of fasting blood glucose levels (FBG) and disease duration on type 2 diabetes in Indian population is still unclear. The present study examines gender-dependent effects of FBG and disease duration on lipid profile, adipocytokines and related biochemical parameters in diabetic individuals. METHODS: Type 2 diabetic individuals (n=100) were classified depending on FBG: patients with normal FBG (Glucose<126mg/dl) and patients with high FBG (Glucose≥126mg/dl); and disease duration: ≥0-≤3yr, >3-≤7yr, >7yr. RESULTS: Males with high FBG had significantly higher serum glucose, triglycerides, very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) and waist hip ratio (WHR) than males with normal FBG. Females with high FBG had significant increase in serum glucose, adiponectin and creatinine while decrease in leptin levels than females with normal FBG. Males with high FBG had higher WHR, superoxide dismutase, SGOT, SGPT and lower adiponectin, leptin than females with high FBG. Significant positive association was observed between glucose and cholesterol, triglyceride, VLDL and urea in males with high FBG. With chronic diabetes for >7yr, males had increased systolic blood pressure, glucose, LDL, urea and low catalase activity as compared to other disease duration groups. However, females had higher adiponectin, creatinine and lower body mass index and cholesterol. CONCLUSIONS: High FBG in males adversely affects lipid profile, adipocytokines and liver function. Some of these effects exacerbate as disease progresses. Higher adiponectin may have desirable effects on metabolic markers in females.

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The study was designed to assess the effect of different strawberry extracts on glucose levels, lipid profiles, and oxidative stress in nicotinamide-streptozotocin (NIC-STZ) induced diabetic rats. The associated changes were evaluated through biochemical, molecular, and histological assays. Diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal injection of STZ to albino Wistar rats after treatment with nicotinamide. Aqueous, hydroalcoholic, and alcoholic strawberry extracts were administrated orally to diabetic rats. Treatment of strawberry extracts improved lipid profile, liver function, and serum creatinine and led to a significant increase in antioxidant status in diabetic rats. Real-time PCR expression analysis of genes from the liver of animals treated with strawberry extracts exhibited downregulation of several fatty acid synthesis genes, transcription factors, such as Sterol regulatory Element Binding Transcription factor (SREBP) and Nuclear Factor-κß (NF-κß), and inflammatory markers, like Interleukin 6 (IL6) and Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α). Strawberry extracts also upregulated liver Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor-γ (PPAR-γ). Histological examination confirmed the nephroprotective and ß-cell regeneration/protection effects of strawberry extracts. The present study demonstrates several beneficial effects of strawberry extracts along with its probable mechanism of action.

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AIM: Type 2 diabetes mellitus has assumed pandemic proportions worldwide. Aggressive management of hyperglycemia in diabetics is a primary goal of treatment. We have previously reported favorable effects of oral hypoglycemic agents on adipocytokines. Aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship of adipocytokines with anthropometric measures and biochemical parameters in type 2 diabetics. METHODS: Clinically diagnosed type 2 diabetics and age, gender matched healthy volunteers were recruited for study. Anthropometric measurements like height, weight, waist-circumference, hip-circumference were recorded and BMI, waist-hip ratio were calculated. Fasting blood samples were collected from participants and sera were analyzed for glucose, glycated haemoglobin, total cholesterol, SGOT, SGPT, insulin, adiponectin and leptin. Correlation of adipocytokines with anthropometric and biochemical parameters was assessed in healthy and diabetic individuals. RESULTS: BMI and WHR in diabetics were significantly higher than healthy population. BMI did not show significant association with adipocytokines. Diabetic males with WHR≥0.9 showed negative association with adiponectin and positive association with leptin. WC did not show significant association with adipocytokines in males. Irrespective of WC, healthy females exhibited positive association with leptin. Diabetic females with WC≥88cm showed leptin to be positively associated with WC. Such association of adipocytokines with WHR was not detected in females. CONCLUSIONS: Body fat distribution can be considered as a parameter in assessing adipokine imbalance. Central adiposity is a better measure of adipokine imbalance than BMI. Abdominal obesity in diabetics correlates with altered levels of adipocytokines indicating its importance in diabetic individuals.

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AIM: As diabetes mellitus is multi-factorial disease, use of several oral hypoglycemic agents (OHAs) is the main stay of pharmacological treatment. The treatment has become more challenging and controversial as OHAs are heterogeneous in their mode of action that causes unwanted side effects. Complementary approaches such as use of medicinal plants and dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) with hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activities are therefore imperative. A vast literature has independently documented the effects of OHAs, medicinal plants and PUFA for management of diabetes. In the present article, we have reviewed the current literature to describe the effects of commonly used OHAs, their mechanisms of action and reported controversies. The antidiabetic potential of herbs and/or formulations and omega-3 PUFA with its potential benefits and mode of action is also discussed. METHODS: PUBMED, MEDLINE, Cochrane Library etc., were searched for relevant articles using appropriate terms (until February 2015). Human and animal studies were selected for the review. Data extraction was carried out by one author and checked by second author. RESULTS: There is still controversy over the safety profile of OHAs. Medicinal herbs with hypoglycemic activities are increasingly sought because of its natural origin, active constituents and minimal side effects. The current literature suggests that supplementation with PUFA improves macro- and microvascular complications. CONCLUSION: There is a need for best possible individualized treatment based on variations in biochemical parameters with combinational therapy of nutritional/herbal supplementations. Such a combination may be helpful for better management of diabetes and its complications.

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BACKGROUND: Emerging evidence suggests beneficial effects of omega-3 fatty acids on diabetic complications. The present study compared the progressive effects of metformin and flax/fish oil on lipid metabolism, inflammatory markers, and liver and renal function test markers in streptozotocin-nicotinamide-induced diabetic rats. METHODS: Streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats were randomized into control and four diabetic groups: streptozotocin (STZ), metformin (200 mg/kg body weight (b.w)/day (D)), flax and fish oil (500 mg/kg b.w/D). RESULTS: Metformin and flax and fish oil exhibited increased expression of transcription factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ while the treatment downregulated sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 and nuclear factor kß as compared to those of the STZ group. Apart from modulation of transcription factor expression, the expression of fatty acid synthase, long chain acyl CoA synthase, and malonyl-CoA-acyl carrier protein transacylase was lowered by flax/fish oil treatment. Serum cholesterol, triglycerides, and VLDL were also significantly reduced in the treatment groups as compared to those in the STZ group. Although pathological abnormalities were seen in the liver and kidneys of rats on metformin, no significant changes in liver/renal function markers were observed at day 15 and day 30 of the treatment groups. Flax/fish oil had protective effects toward pathological abnormalities in the liver and kidney. Flax/fish oil improved lipid profile and alkaline phosphatase at day 30 as compared to that at day 15. CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrates potential beneficial effects of metformin and flax/fish oil intervention in improving serum lipid profile by regulating the expression of transcription factors and genes involved in lipid metabolism in diabetic rats. In addition, these interventions also lowered the expression of atherogenic cytokines. The protective effects of flax/fish oil are worth investigating in human subjects on metformin monotherapy.

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In India, the term "Amarkand" is commonly used for around 30 different plant species belonging to genus Eulophia (Orchidaceae). This single local name Amarkand to different taxonomical species creates uncertainty about its ethnomedical and nutritional claims. In the present article, we have reviewed available literature regarding ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, taxonomy, nutritional, and pharmacological studies of different Amarkand species. The literature was searched using Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Some textbooks and reference books were also used to collect information about traditional and ethnopharmacological records. Amarkand species have been used as a remedy for the treatment of various diseases such as diarrhea, stomach pain, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, asthma, bronchitis, sexual impotency, tuberculosis, and so on. Nutritionally, Amarkand is considered as an excellent food for children and convalescents. Recent studies confirm antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrheal, and so forth activities to Amarkand species. These species are reported to possess various phytoconstituents such as flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenanthrene derivatives. The present review will help to understand overall ethnopharmacology, nutritional aspects, and taxonomy of Amarkand species.

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AIM: Inspite of availability of a variety of drugs to treat type 2 diabetes, little is known about their effects on other systems. Normalization of glucose metabolism by these drugs may consequently affect the secretory function in adipocytes. Secretory adipocytokines like adiponectin and leptin are emerging as novel therapeutic targets for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The present study was undertaken to analyze the effects of commonly used Oral Hypoglycemic Agents (OHAs) alone, or in combination with other drugs and/or insulin on circulatory adiponectin and leptin levels, lipid profile, and blood pressure in diabetic subjects. METHODS: The study was undertaken at IRSHA and Bharati Vidyapeeth Medical College and Hospital, MS, India. Clinically diagnosed T2DM subjects and age, gender matched healthy controls were recruited. Fasting blood was collected from each subject and the blood samples were analyzed for circulatory adipocytokines and lipid parameters using commercial kits. RESULTS: Serum adiponectin levels were significantly increased while leptin significantly decreased in diabetic men (p<0.05) and women (p<0.001) on OHA, as compared to healthy controls. Triglyceride levels significantly decreased (p<0.05) in diabetic men, however, they remained unchanged in women despite same drug treatment. Serum HDL and LDL levels (p<0.001) were significantly lower in diabetic women as compared to healthy women. Systolic (p<0.05) and diastolic (p<0.001) blood pressure was significantly high in diabetic men but remained unchanged in women. CONCLUSIONS: Frequently used OHAs significantly improve circulatory levels of adipocytokines. Selecting best treatment option for each patient is a key, and 2012 European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) and ADA guidelines recommend diabetes treatment to be individualized depending on various socioeconomic and lifestyle factors. We recommend regular analysis of circulatory adipocytokines in T2DM patients to help clinicians select the best treatment option to normalize levels of these important therapeutic targets.

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Ravenelia esculenta Naras. and Thium. is a rust fungus, which infects mostly thorns, inflorescences, flowers and fruits of Acacia eburnea Willd. Aecial stages of the rust produce hypertrophy in infected parts. DNA of the rust fungus was isolated from aeciospores by 'freeze thaw' method. 18S rDNA was amplified and sequenced by automated DNA sequencer. BLAST of the sequence at NCBI retrieved 96 sequences producing significant alignments. Multiple sequence alignment of these sequences was done by ClustalW. Phylogenetic analysis was done by using MEGA 3.1. UPGMA Minimum Evolution tree with bootstrap value of 1000 replicates was constructed using these sequences. From phylogenetic tree it is observed that Ravenelia esculenta and the genus Gymnosporangium share a common ancestry, though Ravenelia esculenta is autoecious on angiosperm and the genus Gymnosporangium is heteroecious with pycnia, aecia on angiosperm and uredia, telia on gymnosperm. Two major clades are recognized which are based on the nature of aecial host (gymnosperm or angiosperm). These clades were also showing shift from pteridophytes to angiosperms as telial hosts. The tree can be interpreted in the other way also where there is separation of 14 families of Uredinales depending upon nature of teliospores, nature of aeciospores and structure of pycnia. These studies determine the phylogenetic position of Ravenelia esculenta among other rust fungi besides broad separation of Uredinales into two clades. These studies also show that there is phylogenetic correlation between molecular and morphological data. This is first report of DNA sequencing and phylogenetic positioning in genus Ravenelia from India.