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Despite its apparent simplicity, water behaves in a complex manner and is fundamental in controlling many physical, chemical and biological processes. The molecular mechanisms underlying interaction of water with materials, particularly polymer networks such as hydrogels, have received much attention in the research community. Despite this, a large gulf still exists in applying what is known to rationalize how the molecular organization of water on and within these materials impacts biological processes. In this perspective, we outline the importance of water in biomaterials science as a whole and give indications for future research directions towards emergence of a complete picture of water, materials and biology.

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Histological processing of mineralised tissue (e.g. bone) allows examining the anatomy of cells and tissues as well as the material properties of the tissue. However, resin-embedding offers limited control over the specimen position for cutting. Moreover, specific anatomical planes (coronal, sagittal) or defined landmarks are often missed with standard microtome sectioning. Here we describe a method to precisely locate a specific anatomical 2D plane or any anatomical feature of interest (e.g. bone lesions, newly formed bone, etc.) using 3D micro computed tomography (microCT), and to expose it using controlled-angle microtome cutting. The resulting sections and corresponding specimen's block surface offer correlative information of the same anatomical location, which can then be analysed using multiscale imaging. Moreover, this method can be combined with immunohistochemistry (IHC) to further identify any component of the bone microenvironment (cells, extracellular matrix, proteins, etc.) and guide subsequent in-depth analysis. Overall, this method allows to:•Cut your specimens in a consistent position and precise manner using microCT-based controlled-angle microtome sectioning.•Locate and expose a specific anatomical plane (coronal, sagittal plane) or any other anatomical landmarks of interest based on microCT.•Identify any cell or tissue markers based on IHC to guide further in-depth examination of those regions of interest.

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Humanized mouse models are increasingly studied to recapitulate human-like bone physiology. While human and mouse bone architectures differ in multiple scales, the extent to which chimeric human-mouse bone physiologically interacts and structurally integrates remains unknown. Here, we identify that humanized bone is formed by a mosaic of human and mouse collagen, structurally integrated within the same bone organ, as shown by immunohistochemistry. Combining this with materials science techniques, we investigate the extracellular matrix of specific human and mouse collagen regions. We show that human-like osteocyte lacunar-canalicular network is retained within human collagen regions and is distinct to that of mouse tissue. This multiscale analysis shows that human and mouse tissues physiologically integrate into a single, functional bone tissue while maintaining their species-specific ultrastructural differences. These results offer an original method to validate and advance tissue-engineered human-like bone in chimeric animal models, which grow to be eloquent tools in biomedical research.

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Reciprocal interactions between prostate epithelial cells and their adjacent stromal microenvironment not only are essential for tissue homeostasis but also play a key role in tumor development and progression. Malignant transformation is associated with the formation of a reactive stroma where cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) induce matrix remodeling and thereby provide atypical biochemical and biomechanical signals to epithelial cells. Previous work has been focused on the cellular and molecular phenotype as well as on matrix stiffness and remodeling, providing potential targets for cancer therapeutics. So far, biomechanical changes in CAFs and adjacent epithelial cells of the prostate have not been explored. Here, we compared the mechanical properties of primary prostatic CAFs and patient-matched non-malignant prostate tissue fibroblasts (NPFs) using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and real-time deformability cytometry (RT-FDC). It was found that CAFs exhibit an increased apparent Young's modulus, coinciding with an altered architecture of the cytoskeleton compared with NPFs. In contrast, co-cultures of benign prostate epithelial (BPH-1) cells with CAFs resulted in a decreased stiffness of the epithelial cells, as well as an elongated morphological phenotype, when compared with co-cultures with NPFs. Moreover, the presence of CAFs increased proliferation and invasion of epithelial cells, features typically associated with tumor progression. Altogether, this study provides novel insights into the mechanical interactions between epithelial cells with the malignant prostate microenvironment, which could potentially be explored for new diagnostic approaches.

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Many skeletal tissue regenerative strategies centre around the multifunctional properties of bone marrow derived stromal cells (BMSC) or mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSC)/bone marrow derived skeletal stem cells (SSC). Specific identification of these particular stem cells has been inconclusive. However, enriching these heterogeneous bone marrow cell populations with characterised skeletal progenitor markers has been a contributing factor in successful skeletal bone regeneration and repair strategies. In the current studies we have isolated, characterised and enriched ovine bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (oBMSCs) using a specific antibody, Stro-4, examined their multipotential differentiation capacity and, in translational studies combined Stro-4+ oBMSCs with a bovine extracellular matrix (bECM) hydrogel and a biocompatible melt electro-written medical-grade polycaprolactone scaffold, and tested their bone regenerative capacity in a small in vivo, highly vascularised, chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model and a preclinical, critical-sized ovine segmental tibial defect model. Proliferation rates and CFU-F formation were similar between unselected and Stro-4+ oBMSCs. Col1A1, Col2A1, mSOX-9, PPARG gene expression were upregulated in respective osteogenic, chondrogenic and adipogenic culture conditions compared to basal conditions with no significant difference between Stro-4+ and unselected oBMSCs. In contrast, proteoglycan expression, alkaline phosphatase activity and adipogenesis were significantly upregulated in the Stro-4+ cells. Furthermore, with extended cultures, the oBMSCs had a predisposition to maintain a strong chondrogenic phenotype. In the CAM model Stro-4+ oBMSCs/bECM hydrogel was able to induce bone formation at a femur fracture site compared to bECM hydrogel and control blank defect alone. Translational studies in a critical-sized ovine tibial defect showed autograft samples contained significantly more bone, (4250.63 mm3, SD = 1485.57) than blank (1045.29 mm3, SD = 219.68) ECM-hydrogel (1152.58 mm3, SD = 191.95) and Stro-4+/ECM-hydrogel (1127.95 mm3, SD = 166.44) groups. Stro-4+ oBMSCs demonstrated a potential to aid bone repair in vitro and in a small in vivo bone defect model using select scaffolds. However, critically, translation to a large related preclinical model demonstrated the complexities of bringing small scale reported stem-cell material therapies to a clinically relevant model and thus facilitate progression to the clinic.

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This study reports on scaffold-based periodontal tissue engineering in a large preclinical animal model. A biphasic scaffold consisting of bone and periodontal ligament compartments manufactured by melt and solution electrospinning, respectively, was used for the delivery of in vitro matured cell sheets from 3 sources: gingival cells (GCs), bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (Bm-MSCs), and periodontal ligament cells (PDLCs). The construct featured a 3-dimensional fibrous bone compartment with macroscopic pore size, while the periodontal compartment consisted of a flexible porous membrane for cell sheet delivery. The regenerative performance of the constructs was radiographically and histologically assessed in surgically created periodontal defects in sheep following 5 and 10 wk of healing. Histologic observation demonstrated that the constructs maintained their shape and volume throughout the entirety of the in vivo study and were well integrated with the surrounding tissue. There was also excellent tissue integration between the bone and periodontal ligament compartments as well as the tooth root interface, enabling the attachment of periodontal ligament fibers into newly formed cementum and bone. Bone coverage along the root surface increased between weeks 5 and 10 in the Bm-MSC and PDLC groups. At week 10, the micro-computed tomography results showed that the PDLC group had greater bone fill as compared with the empty scaffold, while the GC group had less bone than the 3 other groups (control, Bm-MSC, and PDLC). Periodontal regeneration, as measured by histologically verified new bone and cementum formation with obliquely inserted periodontal ligament fibers, increased between 5 and 10 wk for the empty, Bm-MSC, and PDLC groups, while the GC group was inferior to the Bm-MSC and PDLC groups at 10 wk. This study demonstrates that periodontal regeneration can be achieved via the utilization of a multiphasic construct, with Bm-MSCs and PDLCs obtaining superior results as compared with GC-derived cell sheets.

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BACKGROUND: There is a relative paucity of research that integrates materials science and bioengineering with computational simulations to decipher the intricate processes promoting cancer progression. Therefore, a first-generation computational model, SpheroidSim, was developed that includes a biological data set derived from a bioengineered spheroid model to obtain a quantitative description of cell kinetics. RESULTS: SpheroidSim is a 3D agent-based model simulating the growth of multicellular cancer spheroids. Cell cycle time and phases mathematically motivated the population growth. SpheroidSim simulated the growth dynamics of multiple spheroids by individually defining a collection of specific phenotypic traits and characteristics for each cell. Experimental data derived from a hydrogel-based spheroid model were fit to the predictions providing insight into the influence of cell cycle time (CCT) and cell phase fraction (CPF) on the cell population. A comparison of the number of active cells predicted for each analysis showed that the value and method used to define CCT had a greater effect on the predicted cell population than CPF. The model predictions were similar to the experimental results for the number of cells, with the predicted total number of cells varying by 8% and 12%, respectively, compared to the experimental data. CONCLUSIONS: SpheroidSim is a first step in developing a biologically based predictive tool capable of revealing fundamental elements in cancer cell physiology. This computational model may be applied to study the effect of the microenvironment on spheroid growth and other cancer cell types that demonstrate a similar multicellular clustering behavior as the population develops. © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 34:1335-1343, 2018.

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Bone metastases frequently occur in the advanced stages of breast cancer. At this stage, the disease is deemed incurable. To date, the mechanisms of breast cancer-related metastasis to bone are poorly understood. This may be attributed to the lack of appropriate animal models to investigate the complex cancer cell-bone interactions. In this study, two established tissue-engineered bone constructs (TEBCs) were applied to a breast cancer-related metastasis model. A cylindrical medical-grade polycaprolactone-tricalcium phosphate scaffold produced by fused deposition modelling (scaffold 1) was compared with a tubular calcium phosphate-coated polycaprolactone scaffold fabricated by solution electrospinning (scaffold 2) for their potential to generate ectopic humanised bone in NOD/SCID mice. While scaffold 1 was found not suitable to generate a sufficient amount of ectopic bone tissue due to poor ectopic integration, scaffold 2 showed excellent integration into the host tissue, leading to bone formation. To mimic breast cancer cell colonisation to the bone, MDA-MB-231, SUM1315, and MDA-MB-231BO breast cancer cells were cultured in polyethylene glycol-based hydrogels and implanted adjacent to the TEBCs. Histological analysis indicated that the breast cancer cells induced an osteoclastic reaction in the TEBCs, demonstrating analogies to breast cancer-related bone metastasis seen in patients.

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Tissue engineering provides the possibility of regenerating damaged or lost osseous structures without the need for permanent implants. Within this context, biodegradable and bioresorbable scaffolds can provide structural and biomechanical stability until the body's own tissue can take over their function. Additive biomanufacturing makes it possible to design the scaffold's architectural characteristics to specifically guide tissue formation and regeneration. Its nano-, micro-, and macro-architectural properties can be tailored to ensure vascularization, oxygenation, nutrient supply, waste exchange, and eventually ossification not only in its periphery but also in its center, which is not in direct contact with osteogenic elements of the surrounding healthy tissue. In this article we provide an overview about our conceptual design and process of the clinical translation of scaffold-based bone tissue engineering applications.

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The periosteum plays a critical role in bone homeostasis and regeneration. It contains a vascular component that provides vital blood supply to the cortical bone and an osteogenic niche that acts as a source of bone-forming cells. Periosteal grafts have shown promise in the regeneration of critical size defects, however their limited availability restricts their widespread clinical application. Only a small number of tissue-engineered periosteum constructs (TEPCs) have been reported in the literature. A current challenge in the development of appropriate TEPCs is a lack of pre-clinical models in which they can reliably be evaluated. In this study, we present a novel periosteum tissue engineering concept utilizing a multiphasic scaffold design in combination with different human cell types for periosteal regeneration in an orthotopic in vivo platform. Human endothelial and bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) were used to mirror both the vascular and osteogenic niche respectively. Immunohistochemistry showed that the BM-MSCs maintained their undifferentiated phenotype. The human endothelial cells developed into mature vessels and connected to host vasculature. The addition of an in vitro engineered endothelial network increased vascularization in comparison to cell-free constructs. Altogether, the results showed that the human TEPC (hTEPC) successfully recapitulated the osteogenic and vascular niche of native periosteum, and that the presented orthotopic xenograft model provides a suitable in vivo environment for evaluating scaffold-based tissue engineering concepts exploiting human cells.

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The properties of osteoblasts (OBs) isolated from the axial skeleton (tOBs) differ from OBs of the orofacial skeleton (mOBs) due to the different embryological origins of the bones. The aim of the study was to assess and compare the regenerative potential of allogenic bone marrow-derived mesenchymal progenitor cells with allogenic tOBs and allogenic mOBs in combination with a mPCL-TCP scaffold in critical-sized segmental bone defects in sheep tibiae. After 6 months, the tibiae were explanted and underwent biomechanical testing, micro-computed tomography (microCT) and histological and immunohistochemical analyses. Allogenic MPCs demonstrated a trend towards a better outcome in biomechanical testing and the mean values of newly formed bone. Biomechanical, microCT and histological analysis showed no significant differences in the bone regeneration potential of tOBs and mOBs in our in vitro study, as well as in the bone regeneration potential of different cell types in vivo. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Attainment of periodontal regeneration is a significant clinical goal in the management of advanced periodontal defects arising from periodontitis. Over the past 30 years numerous techniques and materials have been introduced and evaluated clinically and have included guided tissue regeneration, bone grafting materials, growth and other biological factors and gene therapy. With the exception of gene therapy, all have undergone evaluation in humans. All of the products have shown efficacy in promoting periodontal regeneration in animal models but the results in humans remain variable and equivocal concerning attaining complete biological regeneration of damaged periodontal structures. In the early 2000s, the concept of tissue engineering was proposed as a new paradigm for periodontal regeneration based on molecular and cell biology. At this time, tissue engineering was a new and emerging field. Now, 14 years later we revisit the concept of tissue engineering for the periodontium and assess how far we have come, where we are currently situated and what needs to be done in the future to make this concept a reality. In this review, we cover some of the precursor products, which led to our current position in periodontal tissue engineering. The basic concepts of tissue engineering with special emphasis on periodontal tissue engineering products is discussed including the use of mesenchymal stem cells in bioscaffolds and the emerging field of cell sheet technology. Finally, we look into the future to consider what CAD/CAM technology and nanotechnology will have to offer.

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Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are the newest member of a growing list of stem cell populations that hold great potential for use in cell-based treatment approaches in the dental field. This review summarizes the dental tissues that have successfully been utilized to generate iPSC lines, as well as the potential uses of iPSCs for tissue regeneration in different dental applications. While iPSCs display great promise in a number of dental applications, there are safety concerns with these cells that need to be addressed before they can be used in clinical settings. This review outlines some of the apprehensions to the use of iPSCs clinically, and it details approaches that are being employed to ensure the safety and efficacy of these cells. One of the major approaches being investigated is the differentiation of iPSCs prior to use in patients. iPSCs have successfully been differentiated into a wide range of cells and tissue types. This review focuses on 2 differentiation approaches-the differentiation of iPSCs into mesenchymal stem cells and the differentiation of iPSCs into osteoprogenitor cells. Both these resulting populations of cells are particularly relevant to the dental field.

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Craniofacial tissues are organized with complex 3-dimensional (3D) architectures. Mimicking such 3D complexity and the multicellular interactions naturally occurring in craniofacial structures represents one of the greatest challenges in regenerative dentistry. Three-dimensional bioprinting of tissues and biological structures has been proposed as a promising alternative to address some of these key challenges. It enables precise manufacture of various biomaterials with complex 3D architectures, while being compatible with multiple cell sources and being customizable to patient-specific needs. This review describes different 3D bioprinting methods and summarizes how different classes of biomaterials (polymer hydrogels, ceramics, composites, and cell aggregates) may be used for 3D biomanufacturing of scaffolds, as well as craniofacial tissue analogs. While the fabrication of scaffolds upon which cells attach, migrate, and proliferate is already in use, printing of all the components that form a tissue (living cells and matrix materials together) to produce tissue constructs is still in its early stages. In summary, this review seeks to highlight some of the key advantages of 3D bioprinting technology for the regeneration of craniofacial structures. Additionally, it stimulates progress on the development of strategies that will promote the translation of craniofacial tissue engineering from the laboratory bench to the chair side.

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Scaffold architecture guides bone formation. However, in critical-sized long bone defects additional BMP-mediated osteogenic stimulation is needed to form clinically relevant volumes of new bone. The hierarchical structure of bone determines its mechanical properties. Yet, the micro- and nanostructure of BMP-mediated fast-forming bone has not been compared with slower regenerating bone without BMP. We investigated the combined effects of scaffold architecture (physical cue) and BMP stimulation (biological cue) on bone regeneration. It was hypothesized that a structured scaffold directs tissue organization through structural guidance and load transfer, while BMP stimulation accelerates bone formation without altering the microstructure at different length scales. BMP-loaded medical grade polycaprolactone-tricalcium phosphate scaffolds were implanted in 30mm tibial defects in sheep. BMP-mediated bone formation after 3 and 12 months was compared with slower bone formation with a scaffold alone after 12 months. A multiscale analysis based on microcomputed tomography, histology, polarized light microscopy, backscattered electron microscopy, small angle X-ray scattering and nanoindentation was used to characterize bone volume, collagen fiber orientation, mineral particle thickness and orientation, and local mechanical properties. Despite different observed kinetics in bone formation, similar structural properties on a microscopic and sub-micron level seem to emerge in both BMP-treated and scaffold only groups. The guiding effect of the scaffold architecture is illustrated through structural differences in bone across different regions. In the vicinity of the scaffold increased tissue organization is observed at 3 months. Loading along the long bone axis transferred through the scaffold defines bone micro- and nanostructure after 12 months.

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Cartilage defects heal imperfectly and osteoarthritic changes develop frequently as a result. Although the existence of specific behaviours of chondrocytes derived from various depth-related zones in vitro has been known for over 20 years, only a relatively small body of in vitro studies has been performed with zonal chondrocytes and current clinical treatment strategies do not reflect these native depth-dependent (zonal) differences. This is surprising since mimicking the zonal organization of articular cartilage in neo-tissue by the use of zonal chondrocyte subpopulations could enhance the functionality of the graft. Although some research groups including our own have made considerable progress in tailoring culture conditions using specific growth factors and biomechanical loading protocols, we conclude that an optimal regime has not yet been determined. Other unmet challenges include the lack of specific zonal cell sorting protocols and limited amounts of cells harvested per zone. As a result, the engineering of functional tissue has not yet been realized and no long-term in vivo studies using zonal chondrocytes have been described. This paper critically reviews the research performed to date and outlines our view of the potential future significance of zonal chondrocyte populations in regenerative approaches for the treatment of cartilage defects. Secondly, we briefly discuss the capabilities of additive manufacturing technologies that can not only create patient-specific grafts directly from medical imaging data sets but could also more accurately reproduce the complex 3D zonal extracellular matrix architecture using techniques such as hydrogel-based cell printing.

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The periodontal ligament is the key tissue facilitating periodontal regeneration. This study aimed to fabricate decellularized human periodontal ligament cell sheets for subsequent periodontal tissue engineering applications. The decellularization protocol involved the transfer of intact human periodontal ligament cell sheets onto melt electrospun polycaprolactone membranes and subsequent bi-directional perfusion with NH4OH/Triton X-100 and DNase solutions. The protocol was shown to remove 92% of DNA content. The structural integrity of the decellularized cell sheets was confirmed by a collagen quantification assay, immunostaining of human collagen type I and fibronectin, and scanning electron microscopy. ELISA was used to demonstrate the presence of residual basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) in the decellularized cell sheet constructs. The decellularized cell sheets were shown to have the ability to support recellularization by allogenic human periodontal ligament cells. This study describes the fabrication of decellularized periodontal ligament cell sheets that retain an intact extracellular matrix and resident growth factors and can support repopulation by allogenic cells. The decellularized hPDL cell sheet concept has the potential to be utilized in future "off-the-shelf" periodontal tissue engineering strategies.

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For a successful clinical outcome, periodontal regeneration requires the coordinated response of multiple soft and hard tissues (periodontal ligament, gingiva, cementum, and bone) during the wound-healing process. Tissue-engineered constructs for regeneration of the periodontium must be of a complex 3-dimensional shape and adequate size and demonstrate biomechanical stability over time. A critical requirement is the ability to promote the formation of functional periodontal attachment between regenerated alveolar bone, and newly formed cementum on the root surface. This review outlines the current advances in multiphasic scaffold fabrication and how these scaffolds can be combined with cell- and growth factor-based approaches to form tissue-engineered constructs capable of recapitulating the complex temporal and spatial wound-healing events that will lead to predictable periodontal regeneration. This can be achieved through a variety of approaches, with promising strategies characterized by the use of scaffolds that can deliver and stabilize cells capable of cementogenesis onto the root surface, provide biomechanical cues that encourage perpendicular alignment of periodontal fibers to the root surface, and provide osteogenic cues and appropriate space to facilitate bone regeneration. Progress on the development of multiphasic constructs for periodontal tissue engineering is in the early stages of development, and these constructs need to be tested in large animal models and, ultimately, human clinical trials.

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In the present study, polycaprolactone-tricalcium phosphate (PCL/TCP) scaffolds with two different fibre laydown patterns, which were coated with hydroxyapatite and gelatine, were used as an approach for optimizing bone regeneration in a critical-sized calvarial defect. After 12 weeks, bone regeneration was quantified using microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) analysis, biomechanical testing, and histological evaluation. Notably, the experimental groups with coated scaffolds showed lower bone formation and lower biomechanical properties within the defect compared to the uncoated scaffolds. Surprisingly, the different laydown pattern of the fibres resulted in different bone formation and biomechanical properties: the 0°/60°/120° scaffolds revealed lower bone formation and biomechanical properties compared to the 0°/90° scaffolds in all the experimental groups. Therefore, future bone regeneration strategies utilizing scaffolds should consider scaffold architecture as an important factor during the scaffold optimization stages in order to move closer to a clinical application.

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