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A survey was conducted in UK regional children's hospitals with paediatric intensive care and paediatric infectious disease (PID) departments to describe the characteristics of paediatric antimicrobial stewardship (PAS) programmes. A structured questionnaire was sent to PAS coordinators. 'Audit and feedback' was implemented in 13 out of 17 centres. Microbiology-led services were more likely to implement antimicrobial restriction (75% vs 33% in PID-led services), to focus on broad-spectrum antibiotics, and to review patients with positive blood cultures. PID-led services were more likely to identify patients from e-prescribing or drug charts and review all antimicrobials. A PAS network has been established.

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Ongoing consumer concerns over using synthetic additives in foods has strongly influenced efforts worldwide to source suitable natural alternatives. In this study, the antibacterial efficacy of polyacetylene and glucosinolate compounds was evaluated against both Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial strains. Falcarinol [minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) = 18.8-37.6 µg/mL] demonstrated the best overall antibacterial activity, while sinigrin (MIC = 46.9-62.5 µg/mL) was the most active glucosinolate compound. High-performance liquid chromatography with a diode array detector analysis showed falcarinol [85.13-244.85 µg/g of dry weight (DW)] to be the most abundant polyacetylene within six of the eight carrot (Daucus carota) cultivars investigated. Meanwhile, sinigrin (100.2-244.3 µg/g of DW) was the most abundant glucosinolate present within the majority of broccoli (Brassica oleracea) cultivars investigated using ultra performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis. The high abundance of both falcarinol and sinigrin within these respective species suggests that they could serve as potential sources of natural antibacterial agents for use as such in food products.

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The corpus luteum (CL) of the tammar wallaby is inhibited by prolactin during lactation and seasonal quiescence. In seasonal quiescence a daily transient pulse of prolactin (PRL) of less than 2h duration is sufficient to maintain inhibition. We investigated whether the same inhibition applies in lactation and, if so, how. Our results show that inhibition of the CL during lactation is maintained by a transient pulse of prolactin once a day. They also show that the minimum time without a PRL pulse for the CL to escape inhibition is more than 48 h and less than 72 h. Nevertheless, some animals had a longer refractory period than 72 h, which was reflected in a longer interval to the progesterone peak and birth. These results support the previous conclusion that PRL exercises its effect on a rate-limiting step in progesterone synthesis and secretion rate from the CL, which precedes any increase in its mass. Therefore, we conclude that the role of PRL is to act as a luteostatic agent, an effect that is in marked contrast to its luteotrophic effect in many eutherian species, including rodents.

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Marsupials are born without a functioning adaptive immune system, into a non-sterile environment where they continue to develop. This review examines the extent of exposure of pouch young to microorganisms and describes the protective mechanisms that are complementary to adaptive immunity in the developing young. Complementary protective mechanisms include the role of the innate immune system and maternal protection strategies, such as immune compounds in milk, prenatal transfer of immunoglobulins, antimicrobial compounds secreted in the pouch, and chemical or mechanical cleaning of the pouch and pouch young.

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Sequencing of the tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii) genome has the potential to be an extremely valuable resource for investigating evolutionary and developmental aspects of the mammalian immune system. However, the tammar wallaby genome has only been sequenced to a 2-fold depth and consists of small contigs, leaving many sequence gaps, many putative orthologs unpredicted and the location of genes within the genome unknown. In the case of low sequenced genomes, physical maps of genes on chromosomes can help identify specific genes if they map to conserved regions. Genes corresponding to adaptive immunity have been mapped in the tammar wallaby; however, genes corresponding to the innate immune system have not been investigated. We predict 2 types of genes important to the innate immune system, mucins and lysozymes, in the tammar wallaby and compare the predicted peptide sequences and locations of the genes with the South American opossum (Monodelphis domestica) and human. We use fluorescence in situ hybridization to physically map the genes to tammar wallaby chromosomes, demonstrating the importance of identifying and mapping genes when genomes have low sequence coverage. As mucins and lysozymes play protective roles in young animals, we also propose that their immunological role in developing marsupials warrants further investigation.

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The pharmacokinetics of oxytetracycline and penicillin G was investigated in tammar wallabies (Macropus eugenii). Groups of eight healthy tammar wallabies were administered i.v. oxytetracycline hydrochloride (40 mg/kg), i.m. long-acting-oxytetracycline (20 mg/kg), i.v. sodium penicillin G (30 mg/kg), or i.m. procaine/benzathine penicillin G (30 mg/kg). Plasma concentrations of oxytetracycline were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography. Pharmacokinetic parameters were comparable to those reported for eutherians of equivalent size and suggest that the practice of adjusting allometrically scaled doses to account for the lower metabolic rate of marsupials may not be valid. Long-acting oxytetracycline and penicillin G both demonstrated depot effects. However, the plasma concentrations achieved question the therapeutic efficacy of the long-acting preparations.

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The development and appearance of hydatid cysts of Echinococcus granulosus in experimentally infected tammar wallabies (Macropus eugenii) and sheep during the period 9-17 months post-infection (mpi) were studied. Cysts of unknown age were also examined from mature, naturally infected sheep. The cysts grew more rapidly and became fertile within a shorter period in wallabies compared with sheep. Cysts from the wallabies were larger in absolute size and were larger relative to the size of the lungs. Microscopical examination revealed that wallaby hydatid cysts developed in small bronchioles. Hydatid cysts in the wallabies had a thicker germinal membrane, with more nuclei and a thicker laminated layer (LL), than hydatid cysts of similar age found in sheep. In contrast, the adventitial layer was thicker in the ovine cysts, comprising a hyalinized layer of degenerate collagen and necrotic cellular debris surrounded by a layer of granulation tissue that was largely absent from lesions in the wallabies. Multilocular cysts were present in sheep, but not in wallabies. The greater thickness of the germinal membrane in wallaby cysts suggests greater parasite activity, which may explain the more rapid growth rate in this host, whereas the thicker adventitial layer in sheep cysts may be restrictive to growth while simultaneously protecting the hydatid from the host immune response. These differences in the parasite-host relationship between macropods and sheep may reflect the relatively recent introduction of the parasite into Australia.

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In Australia, macropodids are common intermediate hosts for the cestode Echinococcus granulosus, and sylvatic transmission is maintained via wild dogs. The parasite causes mortality in a number of macropodid species and the sylvatic cycle provides a source of infection to domestic livestock and humans. We determined the efficacy of the hydatid vaccine, EG95 in the tammar wallaby, Macropus eugenii, challenging either 1 or 9 months post-vaccination. EG95 provides similar protection to that seen in sheep (96-100%). Control tammars were significantly more likely to become infected (odds ratio 29.44; CI 4.13, 209.97; P=0.001) and to develop more cysts (count ratio 26.69; CI 5.83, 122.19; P<0.001). The vaccination may be beneficial if administered pre-release in captive breeding programmes for endangered macropodids. Further work to develop oral delivery methods may enable vaccine administration of wild animals and thereby a reduction in sylvatic transmission.

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Close examination of hormonal profiles and uterine morphology in the marsupial reproductive cycle highlights significant differences between pregnant and non-pregnant cycles. In the polyovular dasyurid marsupial Sminthopsis macroura, we identified changes associated with gestation by comparing ovarian and plasma progesterone concentrations, uterine weights, uterine epithelial mitoses, body weights and gestation lengths between pregnant and non-pregnant luteal phases. The plasma progesterone profile of S. macroura was biphasic, peaking during unilaminar blastocyst expansion and on the day of implantation. Periods of rapid embryonic development were associated with increasing plasma progesterone concentrations and animal body weight. For the first time in a polyovular marsupial, we identified 1) a correlation between ovarian progesterone concentration and conceptus number during the luteal phase just prior to implantation (total ovarian progesterone), indicating a conceptus influence on progesterone concentration; 2) a pulse of uterine epithelial mitotic activity at the time of implantation and 3) increased mitotic activity in pregnant animals during unilaminar blastocyst formation compared with non-pregnant animals. Gestation length was reduced by up to 15%, due to the loss of, or reduction in, the four-cell arrest and more rapid definitive blastocyst expansion. This is the first time a conceptus influence on gestation length has been identified in a dasyurid. This study provides further evidence for the modification of the luteal phase by pregnancy in S. macroura.

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Species-specific viruses are being genetically engineered to produce contraceptive biological controls for pest animals such as mice, rabbits and foxes. The virus vaccines are intended to trigger an autoimmune response in the target animals that interferes with their fertility in a process termed virally vectored immunocontraception. Laboratory experiments have shown that high levels of infertility can be induced in mice infected with recombinant murine cytomegalovirus and ectromelia virus expressing reproductive antigens as well as in rabbits using myxoma virus vectors. The strategies used to produce and deliver species-specific immunocontraceptive vaccines to free-living wildlife are presented in this review. Discussion includes coverage of the likely safety of the proposed vaccines as well as the implications of the approach for fertility control in other species.

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Immunizing laboratory mice against a short peptide to mouse zona pellucida protein 3 (mZP3; amino acids 328-342) reduces fertility in some strains. This antigen was therefore tested to see if it is suitable for use in an immunocontraceptive vaccine to control wild mice. Mouse zona pellucida protein 3 peptide conjugated to a carrier protein (keyhole limpet hemocyanin) was considerably more immunogenic and effective in reducing fertility in wild mice when compared with inbred BALB/c mice. Fertility of the immunized wild mice was reduced by over 50% compared with controls, whereas BALB/c mice showed no reduction. Variation in the responses between individual animals to mZP3 peptide was observed and infertility correlated to the presence of cross-reacting antibodies to native zona pellucida in wild, but not BALB/c, mice.

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Laboratory studies confirm the potential for fertility control in the house mouse Mus domesticus using mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) as a vector for an immunocontraceptive vaccine. This article presents an overview of key results from research in Australia on enclosed and field populations of mice and the associated epidemiology of MCMV. The virus is geographically widespread in Australia. It also persists in low population densities of mice, although if population densities are low for at least a year, transmission of the virus is sporadic until a population threshold of approximately 40 mice ha(-1) is reached. The serological prevalence of MCMV was high early in the breeding season of four field populations. Enclosure studies confirm that MCMV has minimal impact on the survival and breeding performance of mice and that it can be transmitted to most adults within 10-12 weeks. Other enclosure studies indicate that about two-thirds of females would need to be sterilized to provide effective control of the rate of growth of mouse populations. If this level is not maintained for 20-25 weeks after the commencement of breeding, the mouse population can compensate through increased recruitment per breeding female. The findings from this series of descriptive and manipulative population studies of mice support the contention that MCMV would be a good carrier for an immunocontraceptive vaccine required to sustain female sterility levels at or above 65%.

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In the present study, we investigated whether natural killer (NK) cells modulate immunoglobulin (Ig) secretion by B cells from Trypanosoma cruzi-infected mice. B cells from infected mice increased IgM and IgG2a secretion in the presence of a NK cell line, and this response was cell contact-dependent. Stimulation of splenic B cells with polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid, a NK cell activator, also increased Ig secretion by B cells from infected mice. B cells from infected mice expressed higher levels of the B7.2 molecule. Our results suggest that NK cells may be involved in the control of the abnormal B cell activation observed during T. cruzi infection.

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We report on the pathogenicity of canine herpesvirus (CHV) for European red foxes. In the first experiment, we inoculated 10 adult foxes intravenously with a canine isolate of CHV. All foxes became infected and shed CHV in saliva and genital secretions for up to 14 days post-inoculation (p.i.) as evaluated by PCR and/or by virus isolation. All foxes developed clinical signs such as fever, lethargy and evidence of respiratory tract disease. Two foxes died on day 6 p.i., one on day 7 p.i., and one fox was euthanased on day 6 p.i. Tissues taken from the four dead foxes were positive for CHV by PCR. The remaining six foxes recovered after approximately 14 days p.i. Virus particles with morphology typical of herpesviruses were found by electron microscopy in the liver of an infected animal. All surviving foxes developed serum anti-CHV antibodies. In a second experiment, six foxes were dosed perorally with CHV and paired with six untreated controls. Neither the perorally dosed nor the in-contact control foxes developed clinical signs of disease. Infectious CHV was not isolated from any of the dosed or the in-contact foxes but all perorally-infected foxes and one of the in-contact foxes tested PCR-positive for CHV on several occasions p.i. All perorally-infected foxes, but none of the in-contact foxes, seroconverted. In summary, intravenous CHV inoculation caused a clinical disease in adult foxes much more severe than observed in experimentally-infected adult dogs. No clinical disease or virus spread was observed after peroral dosing although viral infection occurred as evidenced by seroconversion.

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This study investigated the effect of superovulation with exogenous porcine FSH/LH on the normal hormonal milieu of the tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii). During seasonal and lactational quiescence, groups of 6 females were treated with either multiple doses of porcine follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (8 x 6 mg i.m., 12 h apart) followed by a single subcutaneous injection of 4 mg porcine luteinizing hormone (LH) on Day 5 or saline. Blood samples were collected throughout each 10-day experimental period and each female was examined twice daily for signs of a recent copulation. On Day 9, females were killed and their reproductive tracts removed for examination and flushed for eggs. During both seasonal and lactational quiescence, treatment with porcine FSH/LH induced circulating concentrations of progesterone, porcine FSH and porcine LH that were within the normal range of the natural tammar oestrous cycle. However, higher plasma oestradiol concentrations (30-50 microg mL(-1)) than would be expected in a natural tammar preovulatory rise and the presence of 'highly stimulated' ovaries in several of the treated animals suggests that some degree of over-stimulation was occurring. During both seasonal sampling periods, behavioural oestrus was detected in treated tammars in the absence of a withdrawal of progesterone. This data suggests that plasma progesterone is not the critical factor inducing behavioural oestrus.

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Glycoinositolphospholipids (GIPLs) are some of the major glycolipids of the Trypanosoma cruzi surface that were previously shown to activate B cells. In the present study, we investigated whether (i) T. cruzi GIPLs could induce immunoglobulin secretion from B cells in the absence of T cells and NK cells and whether (ii) NK cells are also stimulated by the GIPLs. B cells purified from mice deficient in both T and NK cells (CD3epsilon transgenic mice) secreted immunoglobulin in response to the GIPL. This response was increased by coculture with a murine NK cell line. The T. cruzi GIPL also increased the NK cell (interleukin-2 induced) proliferative response. Our data indicate that the T. cruzi GIPL has a direct stimulatory effect on NK cells and induces immunoglobulin secretion in the absence of T lymphocytes and NK cells. These findings suggest that this T. cruzi-derived molecule may be one of the stimulators that lead to NK cell activation during T. cruzi infection.

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Maximal tetanic tension was elicited at 200, 150, and 150 Hz in control tibialis anterior muscles and at 150, 100, and 100 Hz in 14-day regenerating muscles of young (3 months), adult (18 months), and old (31 months) Fischer 344/Brown Norway F1 rats, respectively. In contrast to young rats, increasing stimulation frequency from 50 to 150 Hz did not elicit significantly greater tetanic tension in control or regenerating muscles of old rats. At higher stimulation frequencies, tetanic fade was prevalent in control and regenerating muscles of adult (250-300 Hz) and old rats (200-300 Hz), but was only present at 14 days of recovery in regenerating muscles of young rats (300 Hz). The decreased efficacy of rehabilitative and physical medicine procedures in adult and elderly patients who have suffered skeletal muscle injury could be explained, in part, by the postulate that tetanic fade is indicative of inadequate synaptic transmission.

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Population control has become a major problem in many wildlife species. Fertility control through immunocontraception has been proposed as a method for reducing population size. We have tested the concept that immunocontraception can be achieved with a recombinant ectromelia virus expressing an ovary-specific antigen, the mouse zona pellucida 3 (ZP3) glycoprotein. Female mice infected with the recombinant virus produced autoimmune antibodies against ZP3 and were infertile for 5-9 mo after infection. For almost half the infertile mice, immunity to ZP3 was associated with a disruption of ovarian follicular development and the depletion of mature follicles without observable oophoritis. Mice returned to fertility as the anti-ZP3 antibody level in the serum decreased. Reinfection of the mice with the recombinant virus boosted the anti-ZP3 response and restored infertility.

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