RESUMO
Initiatives to reduce sodium intake are encouraged globally, yet there is concern about compromised iodine intake supplied through salt. The aim of the present study was to determine baseline sodium, potassium, and iodine intake in a sample of workers from our Institution in Mexico City (SALMEX Cohort). Methods. From a cohort of 1009 workers, appropriate 24-h urine and three-day dietary recall was collected in a sample of 727 adult subjects for assessment of urinary sodium, potassium, and iodine concentrations. Median urinary iodine excretion (UIE) was compared across categories of sodium intake of <2, 2â»3.6, and ≥3.6 g/day. Results. Average sodium intake was 3.49 ± 1.38 g/day; higher in men than women (4.14 vs. 3.11 g/day, p ≤0.001). Only 10.6% of the population had sodium intake within the recommended range (<2 g/day); 45.4% had high (2â»3.6 g/day) and 44% had excessive intake (>3.6 g/day). Average urinary Na/K ratio was 3.15 ± 1.22 (ideal < 1), higher in men (3.42 vs. 3.0, p ≤ 0.001). The multivariate analysis showed that sodium intake was associated with age (p = 0.03), male sex (p < 0.001), caloric intake (p = 0.002), UKE (p < 0.001) and BMI (p < 0.001). Median iodine intake was 286.7 µg/day (IQR 215â»370 µg/day). Less than 2% of subjects had iodine intake lower than recommended for adults (95 µg/day); 1.3% of subjects in the recommended range of salt intake had low iodine intake. There is a direct relationship between iodine and sodium urinary excretion (r = 0.57, p < 0.0001). Conclusions. In the studied population, there was an excessive sodium intake and an imbalance between sodium and potassium intake. Only 10.6% of the population had sodium intake within the recommended values, but iodine intake in this group appears to be adequate.
Assuntos
Iodo/administração & dosagem , Deficiência de Potássio/epidemiologia , Potássio na Dieta/administração & dosagem , Sódio na Dieta/administração & dosagem , Adulto , Distribuição de Qui-Quadrado , Estudos Transversais , Inquéritos sobre Dietas , Feminino , Humanos , Iodo/urina , Masculino , México/epidemiologia , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Análise Multivariada , Doenças não Transmissíveis/epidemiologia , Estado Nutricional , Valor Nutritivo , Deficiência de Potássio/diagnóstico , Deficiência de Potássio/urina , Potássio na Dieta/urina , Prevalência , Recomendações Nutricionais , Sódio na Dieta/efeitos adversos , Sódio na Dieta/urina , Saúde da População Urbana , UrináliseRESUMO
Despite the negative effects of high sodium and low potassium consumption on cardiovascular health, their consumption has not been quantified in sites undergoing urbanization. We aimed to determine the sodium and potassium consumption in a semi-urban area in Peru with a cross-sectional study. 24-h urine samples were collected. The outcomes were mean consumption of sodium and potassium, as well as adherence to their consumption recommendation: <2 g/day and ≥3.51 g/day, respectively. Bivariate analyses were conducted to identify socio-economic and clinical variables associated with the consumption recommendations of 602 participants, complete urine samples were found in 409: mean age of participants was 45.7 (standard deviation (SD): 16.2) years and 56% were women. The mean sodium and potassium consumption was 4.4 (SD: 2.1) and 2.0 (SD: 1.2) g/day. The sodium and potassium recommendation was met by 7.1% and 13.7% of the study sample; none of the participants met both recommendations. People not adherent to the sodium recommendation had higher diastolic (73.1 mmHg vs. 68.2 mmHg, p = 0.015) and systolic (113.1 mmHg vs. 106.3 mmHg, p = 0.047) blood pressure than those who comply with the recommendation. Public health actions ought to be implemented in areas undergoing urbanization to improve sodium and potassium consumption at the population level.
Assuntos
Potássio na Dieta/urina , Sódio na Dieta/urina , Saúde da População Urbana , Adolescente , Adulto , Biomarcadores/urina , Pressão Sanguínea , Estudos Transversais , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Estado Nutricional , Peru , Ensaios Clínicos Controlados Aleatórios como Assunto , Recomendações Nutricionais , Fatores de Tempo , Urinálise , Adulto JovemRESUMO
ABSTRACT CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE: Sodium and potassium intake from different food sources is an important issue regarding cardiovascular physiology. Epidemiological assessment of the intake of these electrolytes intake is done through food frequency questionnaires or urinary excretion measurements. Our aim was to compare these methods using a sample of Brazilian civil servants. DESIGN AND SETTING: Cross-sectional baseline evaluation from the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health. METHODS: Sodium and potassium intake was obtained using two methods: a semi-quantitative questionnaire including 114 food items; and overnight 12-hour urinary excretion measurement. Sodium and potassium estimates obtained through the questionnaire were adjusted for energy intake using the residual method. Urinary excretion measurements were considered valid if they met three adequacy criteria: collection time, volume and total creatinine excretion. Mean nutrients were estimated, and Spearman correlations were calculated. Sodium and potassium intake was categorized into quintiles, and weighted kappa coefficients and percentage agreement were calculated. The significance level for all tests was 0.05. RESULTS: Data from 15,105 participants were analyzed, and significant differences between mean intakes of sodium (questionnaire: 4.5 ± 1.7 g; urine: 4.2 ± 2.1 g) and potassium (questionnaire: 4.7 ± 1.8 g; urine: 2.4 ± 1 g) were found. Weak agreement was found for sodium (K = 0.18) and potassium (K = 0.16). The percentage disagreement between methods ranged from 41.8 to 44.5%, while exact concordance ranged from 22.1% to 23.9%. CONCLUSIONS: The agreement between the food frequency questionnaire and urinary excretion measurements for assessment of sodium and potassium intakes was modest.
RESUMO CONTEXTO E OBJETIVO: O consumo de sódio e potássio de diferentes fontes alimentares é uma questão importante para a fisiologia cardiovascular. A avaliação epidemiológica do consumo desses eletrólitos é feita pelo questionário de frequência alimentar ou pela excreção urinária. O objetivo deste estudo é comparar esses métodos em uma amostra de servidores públicos brasileiros. TIPO DE ESTUDO E LOCAL: Avaliação transversal da linha de base do Estudo Longitudinal de Saúde do Adulto. MÉTODOS: O consumo de sódio e potássio foi obtido por dois métodos: questionário semi-quantitativo com 114 itens alimentares e excreção urinária de 12 horas noturnas. Estimativas de sódio e potássio obtidas pelo questionário foram ajustadas pela energia utilizando o método residual. A excreção urinária foi considerada válida se atendesse a três critérios: tempo de coleta, volume e excreção total de creatinina adequados. Foram estimadas médias dos nutrientes e calculada a correlação de Spearman. O consumo de sódio e potássio foi categorizado em quintis e foram calculados o kappa ponderado e o percentual de concordância. O nível de significância para todos os testes foi de 0,05. RESULTADOS: Foram analisados dados de 15,105 participantes e encontradas diferenças significativas entre médias de sódio (questionário: 4,5 ± 1,7 g; urina: 4,2 ± 2,1 g) e potássio (questionário: 4,7 ± 1,8 g; urina: 2,4 ± 1 g). Foi encontrada fraca concordância para sódio (K = 0,18) e potássio (K = 0,16). Percentuais de discordância entre métodos variaram de 41,8-44,5%; concordâncias exatas de 22,1-23,9%. CONCLUSÃO: A concordância entre o questionário de frequência alimentar e excreção urinária para avaliação do consumo de sódio e potássio foi modesta.
Assuntos
Adulto , Idoso , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Inquéritos sobre Dietas/normas , Inquéritos sobre Dietas/estatística & dados numéricos , Potássio na Dieta/urina , Sódio na Dieta/urina , Inquéritos e Questionários/normas , Brasil , Creatinina/urina , Estudos Transversais , Ingestão de Energia , Estudos Longitudinais , Potássio na Dieta/administração & dosagem , Valores de Referência , Reprodutibilidade dos Testes , Sódio na Dieta/administração & dosagem , Estatísticas não Paramétricas , Fatores de TempoRESUMO
CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE: Sodium and potassium intake from different food sources is an important issue regarding cardiovascular physiology. Epidemiological assessment of the intake of these electrolytes intake is done through food frequency questionnaires or urinary excretion measurements. Our aim was to compare these methods using a sample of Brazilian civil servants. DESIGN AND SETTING: Cross-sectional baseline evaluation from the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health. METHODS: Sodium and potassium intake was obtained using two methods: a semi-quantitative questionnaire including 114 food items; and overnight 12-hour urinary excretion measurement. Sodium and potassium estimates obtained through the questionnaire were adjusted for energy intake using the residual method. Urinary excretion measurements were considered valid if they met three adequacy criteria: collection time, volume and total creatinine excretion. Mean nutrients were estimated, and Spearman correlations were calculated. Sodium and potassium intake was categorized into quintiles, and weighted kappa coefficients and percentage agreement were calculated. The significance level for all tests was 0.05. RESULTS: Data from 15,105 participants were analyzed, and significant differences between mean intakes of sodium (questionnaire: 4.5 ± 1.7 g; urine: 4.2 ± 2.1 g) and potassium (questionnaire: 4.7 ± 1.8 g; urine: 2.4 ± 1 g) were found. Weak agreement was found for sodium (K = 0.18) and potassium (K = 0.16). The percentage disagreement between methods ranged from 41.8 to 44.5%, while exact concordance ranged from 22.1% to 23.9%. CONCLUSIONS: The agreement between the food frequency questionnaire and urinary excretion measurements for assessment of sodium and potassium intakes was modest.
Assuntos
Inquéritos sobre Dietas/estatística & dados numéricos , Inquéritos sobre Dietas/normas , Potássio na Dieta/urina , Sódio na Dieta/urina , Inquéritos e Questionários/normas , Adulto , Idoso , Brasil , Creatinina/urina , Estudos Transversais , Ingestão de Energia , Feminino , Humanos , Estudos Longitudinais , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Potássio na Dieta/administração & dosagem , Valores de Referência , Reprodutibilidade dos Testes , Sódio na Dieta/administração & dosagem , Estatísticas não Paramétricas , Fatores de TempoRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Hypertension is associated with elevated sodium and low potassium intakes. The determination of sodium and potassium intake by dietary records is inaccurate, being its measurement from 24-h urine collection the reference method. AIM: To determine urinary sodium and potassium excretion in adults. To compare dietary sodium and potassium intake and their excretion from an isolated urine sample against the reference method. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Seventy healthy adults aged 35 ± 8 years with a body mass index 25 ± 2 kg/m² (36 women) were studied. Urine was collected over 24 h, including an isolated urine sample taken in fasting conditions. Additionally, three 24-h dietary records were performed. RESULTS: Reported sodium and potassium intake was 2,720 ± 567 and 1,068 ± 433 mg/day, respectively. In turn, urinary excretion of sodium and potassium was 4,770 ± 1,532 and 1,852 ± 559 mg/day, respectively. These latter values were significantly higher than those obtained by dietary records. Furthermore, the urinary sodium and potassium excretion estimated from an isolated urine sample was 4,839 ± 1,355 and 1,845 ± 494 mg/day, respectively. These values were similar to those obtained with a 24 h urine collection. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary records underestimated electrolyte intake when compared with the reference method. Using an isolated urine sample to estimate electrolyte intake may be a reliable alternative.
Assuntos
Potássio na Dieta/urina , Cloreto de Sódio na Dieta/urina , Sódio na Dieta/urina , Adulto , Índice de Massa Corporal , Chile , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Potássio na Dieta/administração & dosagem , Sódio na Dieta/administração & dosagemRESUMO
Background: Hypertension is associated with elevated sodium and low potassium intakes. The determination of sodium and potassium intake by dietary records is inaccurate, being its measurement from 24-h urine collection the reference method. Aim: To determine urinary sodium and potassium excretion in adults. To compare dietary sodium and potassium intake and their excretion from an isolated urine sample against the reference method. Material and Methods: Seventy healthy adults aged 35 ± 8 years with a body mass index 25 ± 2 kg/m² (36 women) were studied. Urine was collected over 24 h, including an isolated urine sample taken in fasting conditions. Additionally, three 24-h dietary records were performed. Results: Reported sodium and potassium intake was 2,720 ± 567 and 1,068 ± 433 mg/day, respectively. In turn, urinary excretion of sodium and potassium was 4,770 ± 1,532 and 1,852 ± 559 mg/day, respectively. These latter values were significantly higher than those obtained by dietary records. Furthermore, the urinary sodium and potassium excretion estimated from an isolated urine sample was 4,839 ± 1,355 and 1,845 ± 494 mg/day, respectively. These values were similar to those obtained with a 24 h urine collection. Conclusions: Dietary records underestimated electrolyte intake when compared with the reference method. Using an isolated urine sample to estimate electrolyte intake may be a reliable alternative.
Assuntos
Adulto , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Potássio na Dieta/urina , Cloreto de Sódio na Dieta/urina , Sódio na Dieta/urina , Índice de Massa Corporal , Chile , Potássio na Dieta/administração & dosagem , Sódio na Dieta/administração & dosagemRESUMO
Habitual levels of dietary sodium and potassium are correlated with age-related increases in blood pressure (BP) and likely have a role in this phenomenon. Although extensive published evidence exists from randomized trials, relatively few large-scale community surveys with multiple 24-h urine collections have been reported. We obtained three 24-h samples from 2704 individuals from Nigeria, Jamaica and the United States to evaluate patterns of intake and within-person relationships with BP. The average (±s.d.) age and weight of the participants across all the three sites were 39.9±8.6 years and 76.1±21.2 kg, respectively, and 55% of the total participants were females. Sodium excretion increased across the East-West gradient (for example, 123.9±54.6, 134.1±48.8, 176.6±71.0 (±s.d.) mmol, Nigeria, Jamaica and US, respectively), whereas potassium was essentially unchanged (for example, 46.3±22.9, 40.7±16.1, 44.7±16.4 (±s.d.) mmol, respectively). In multivariate analyses both sodium (positively) and potassium (negatively) were strongly correlated with BP (P<0.001); quantitatively the association was stronger, and more consistent in each site individually, for potassium. The within-population day-to-day variation was also greater for sodium than for potassium. Among each population group, a significant correlation was observed between sodium and urine volume, supporting the prior finding of sodium as a determinant of fluid intake in free-living individuals. These data confirm the consistency with the possible role of dietary electrolytes as hypertension risk factors, reinforcing the relevance of potassium in these populations.
Assuntos
População Negra/estatística & dados numéricos , Pressão Sanguínea , Hipertensão/etnologia , Estilo de Vida/etnologia , Natriurese , Potássio na Dieta/urina , Cloreto de Sódio na Dieta/urina , Adulto , Negro ou Afro-Americano/estatística & dados numéricos , Características Culturais , Ingestão de Líquidos/etnologia , Feminino , Humanos , Hipertensão/fisiopatologia , Hipertensão/urina , Jamaica/epidemiologia , Modelos Lineares , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Análise Multivariada , Nigéria/epidemiologia , Potássio na Dieta/efeitos adversos , Medição de Risco , Fatores de Risco , Cloreto de Sódio na Dieta/efeitos adversos , Estados Unidos/epidemiologia , UrodinâmicaRESUMO
OBJECTIVES: Our study objectives were as follows: (1) to determine whether urinary excretion of potassium is lower in black than in white children, (2) to determine whether cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) varies inversely with dietary intake of potassium, and (3) to confirm that CVR is greater in black than in white children, and in children with a family history of hypertension than in those without such a history. STUDY DESIGN: Baseline measurements included 24-hour urinary sodium, potassium, and creatinine levels and food intake (by questionnaire). Resting and stress blood pressure were measured during blood sampling, cold water foot immersion, and a video game before and after 1 week each of supplementation with potassium citrate, 1.5 mmol/kg per day, and placebo administered in random order. RESULTS: Thirty-nine children aged 7 to 15 years were studied. White subjects had higher baseline excretion of potassium than black subjects (p < 0.001) and higher vegetable intake (p < 0.01), which were positively correlated (r = 0.53, p < 0.001). At baseline, the 24-hour urinary potassium/creatinine ratio varied inversely with diastolic CVR to the video game stressor in white children (r = -0.55, p = 0.02). Cardiovascular reactivity was not attenuated measurably by potassium supplementation compared with placebo. The CVR was greater in children with a family history of hypertension than in those without, but was not greater in black children than in white children. CONCLUSIONS: The urinary potassium/creatinine ratio is higher in white than black children because their intake of vegetables is greater; dietary potassium intake may modulate CVR, particularly in white children with a family history of hypertension, but may need to be supplemented for more than 1 week to demonstrate attenuation of CVR; and a family history of hypertension may be a stronger predictor of enhanced CVR than is race.