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The assessment of parasympathetic nervous activity and psychophysiological responses infers the stress imposed by different resistance training systems. Therefore, we compare the effects of different sets configurations, with similar volume (~60 repetitions), on heart rate variability indices and internal training load. Twenty-nine resistance-trained adults completed the following conditions: traditional without and with muscle failure, inter-repetition rest, and rest-pause in the parallel squat. The heart rate variability indices (time-domain) were measured before and 30 min after each condition. The internal training load was obtained through the session-rating of perceived exertion method. Except for inter-repetition rest, all conditions reduced the heart rate variability indices after the session (P<0.05), and the rest-pause triggered the higher reductions (≤-46.7%). The internal training load was higher in the rest-pause (≤68.9%). Our results suggest that rest-pause configuration leads to more considerable disruption of the parasympathetic nervous activity and higher internal training load in trained adults. In contrast, inter-repetition rest allows lower autonomic and psychophysiological stress.

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A common practice among bodybuilders is the use of carbohydrate loading to improve physical appearance during competition, while limited documented data is available about this issue. The aim of the present study was to evaluate muscle thickness, mood states, gastrointestinal symptoms and subjective silhouette assessment following carbohydrate loading in bodybuilders. Twenty-four male bodybuilders were evaluated at the weighing period following three days of carbohydrate depletion (M1), and 24h of carbohydrate loading leading up to the competition (M2), stratified into: no carbohydrate load (NC, n = 9) and carbohydrate loading (CL, n =1 5). The silhouette scale, Brunel mood scale (BRUMS), muscle thickness (ultrasound), circumferences, and gastrointestinal symptoms (GIS) were evaluated at M1 and M2. The NC displayed no differences in muscle thickness and circumferences between M1 and M2. Body mass, muscle thickness (elbow flexors, a combination of biceps brachii/ brachialis muscle, and triceps brachii) and circumferences (chest, hip, thigh, arm, calves, and forearm) increased significantly (p < 0.05) in the CL at M2. There was a significant increase in photo silhouette scores (p < 0.05) in the CL at M2. There was no significant difference in mood states between groups or time. The most reported GIS was constipation: 7/9 (NC) and 9/15 (CL) during M1 and 6/9 (NC), and 5/15 (CL) at M2 with symptoms described as 'moderate' or 'severe'. Diarrhea was reported by 7/15 CL (4/15 as severe). These data suggest that carbohydrate loading may contribute to an acute increase in muscle volume and physical appearance, however, it needs to be better planned to minimize gastrointestinal symptoms in bodybuilders.

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The main purpose of the present study was to investigate the acute effects of different training loads on ratings of perceived exertion and discomfort and feelings of pleasure/displeasure in resistance-trained men. Twelve resistance-trained men (26.7±3.5 years, 85.1±17.5 kg, and 174. 9±9.9 cm) performed 3 sets of the bench press, squat on a hack machine, and lat pulldown, until volitional concentric failure in two separate conditions: a moderate load (MOD) consisting of a relative load of 8-12 repetitions maximum (RM), and a light load (LIT) consisting of a relative load of 25-30RM. The session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), session rating of perceived discomfort (sRPD), and session pleasure/displeasure feelings (sPDF) were assessed after 15 min after the ending of each session. A randomized, counterbalanced, crossover study was performed with 48 h recovery afforded between sessions. Differences between conditions were observed for sRPE and sRPD, in which scores for LIT were greater than MOD (sRPE: MOD=5.5±1.0 vs. LIT=6.4±0.7; sRPD: MOD=6.7±1.7 vs. LIT=8.7±1.0). For sPDF, MOD reported feelings of pleasure (1.2), whereas the LIT presented a feeling of displeasure (-2.3). Results suggest that resistance training performed with a light load until failure induces higher degrees of effort, discomfort and displeasure compared to a moderate load.

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BACKGROUND: The aim of the present study was to analyse the effects of placebo on bench throw performance in Paralympic weightlifting athletes. METHODS: The study involved four Paralympic weightlifting male athletes (age: 40.25 ± 9.91 years, weight: 60.5 ± 8.29 kg, height: 1.60 ± 0.15 m) that visited the laboratory in three occasions, separated by 72 h. In the first session, the athletes were tested for bench press one repetition maximum (1RM). The other two sessions were performed in a randomized counter-balanced order and involved bench throw tests performed either after taking placebo while being informed that the capsule contained caffeine or without taking any substance (control). The bench throw tests were performed with loads corresponding to 50, 60, 70 and 80% of the bench press 1RM. RESULTS: According to the results, mean velocity (∆: 0.08 m/s, ES 0.36, p < 0.05) and mean propulsive velocity (∆: 0.11 m/s, ES 0.49, p < 0.05) at 50% of 1RM were significantly higher during placebo than control (p < 0.05). However, there were no difference between control and placebo for 60, 70 and 80% of 1RM (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that placebo intake, when the athletes were informed they were taking caffeine, might be an efficient strategy to improve the performance of explosive movements in Paralympic weightlifting athletes when using low-loads. This brings the possibility of using placebo in order to increase performance, which might reduce the risks associated with ergogenic aids, such as side-effects and positive doping testing.

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Identifying the factors that influence the body image of body builders is important for understanding this construct. The aim of this study was to analyze the association between body image and age, socioeconomic status, and place of residence of body builders from two cities in Brazil. A cross-sectional study of 301 body builders with an average age of 25.2 yr. (SD = 3.5) was carried out. The Muscle Silhouette Measure scale was used, in which the discrepancy between current and desired silhouette was examined. Older body builders showed greater discrepancy between current and desired silhouette, reflecting their desire for a more muscular body.

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Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are used to enhance performance and appearance. The aim of this research was to assess the knowledge of AAS among Brazilian bodybuilders. The sample was comprised of 123 male participants between the ages of 18 and 50 years. Questionnaires were administered to bodybuilders from gyms in the district capital and in the rural area of Pernambuco, state of northeast of Brazil, in 2008. We analyzed the use and abuse of AAS from several different perspectives among the bodybuilders. For the participants in our study, enhanced appearance justifies the misuse of AAS. The study's limitations are noted.

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Background: Muscle dysmorphia or vigorexia is a disorder in which a person becomes obsessed with the idea that he or she is not muscular enough. Aim: To assess physical exercise, eating behaviors and the presence of muscle dysmorphia among weightlifters and medical students. Subjects and Methods: Cross sectional evaluation of 88 male weightlifters aged 27 ± 7 years and 84 male medical students aged 22 ± 1 year was made. Eating behaviors were evaluated using the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-40) and the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI). The perception of body image was assessed using the Graduate Hannover Scale (GHS). Results: Prevalence of muscle dysmorphia among weightlifters was 13.6 percent. Both groups did not differ in body dissatisfaction. Interest in appearance among weightlifters was significantly higher than in students and ranged significantly higher in EAT-40 and EDI (p < 0.001). Other sports were practiced with the same frequency by weightlifters and students. Weightlifters expended more time than students exercising to improve their appearance (p < 0.005). Forty two percent of weightlifters with muscle dysmorphia displayed abuse of anabolics and 67 percent used other substances to improve their performance (p < 0.005). Conclusions: The presence of muscle dysmorphia among weightlifters was confirmed. They were dissatisfied with their body image and more concerned with their physical appearance than those without muscle dysmorphia and/or students. Their anabolic abuse rate was high. Our findings were similar to those reported in the international literature.

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BACKGROUND: Muscle dysmorphia or vigorexia is a disorder in which a person becomes obsessed with the idea that he or she is not muscular enough. AIM: To assess physical exercise, eating behaviors and the presence of muscle dysmorphia among weightlifters and medical students. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Cross sectional evaluation of 88 male weightlifters aged 27 ± 7 years and 84 male medical students aged 22 ± 1 year was made. Eating behaviors were evaluated using the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-40) and the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI). The perception of body image was assessed using the Graduate Hannover Scale (GHS). RESULTS: Prevalence of muscle dysmorphia among weightlifters was 13.6%. Both groups did not differ in body dissatisfaction. Interest in appearance among weightlifters was significantly higher than in students and ranged significantly higher in EAT-40 and EDI (p < 0.001). Other sports were practiced with the same frequency by weightlifters and students. Weightlifters expended more time than students exercising to improve their appearance (p < 0.005). Forty two percent of weightlifters with muscle dysmorphia displayed abuse of anabolics and 67% used other substances to improve their performance (p < 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: The presence of muscle dysmorphia among weightlifters was confirmed. They were dissatisfied with their body image and more concerned with their physical appearance than those without muscle dysmorphia and/or students. Their anabolic abuse rate was high. Our findings were similar to those reported in the international literature.

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This study focused on the reasons for practicing bodybuilding and the use of anabolic steroids, as well as the social representations and uses of the body among bodybuilding steroid users. This ethnographic study involved participant observation in middle and lower-class bodybuilding gyms in Salvador, Bahia State, Brazil, and 43 in-depth interviews with steroid users. Aesthetic reasons are the main motivation for bodybuilding and steroid use in both middle and lower-class users. Dissatisfaction with one's real body as compared to the ideal standard flaunted by the mass media, fear of being devalued or shunned by one's peer groups, the symbolic capital associated with a 'pumped-up' body, and the sense of immediacy in obtaining results all contributed to steroid use. Preventive campaigns are needed, targeting young people and combining a critical view and deconstruction of the values assigned to the body by consumer society, counteracted by high-quality information on the health risks associated with anabolic steroid use.

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O objetivo do estudo foi investigar as motivações para a prática da musculação e uso de anabolizantes, assim como as representações e usos sociais do corpo entre usuários de anabolizantes praticantes de musculação. Foi realizado um estudo etnográfico com observação participante em academias de musculação de bairros de classe média e classes populares de Salvador, Bahia, Brasil, e realização de 43 entrevistas em profundidade com usuários de anabolizantes. A prática da musculação e o uso de anabolizantes, tanto entre usuários de classe média quanto populares, são motivados sobretudo por razões estéticas. A insatisfação com corpo real em comparação ao padrão ideal disseminado pela mídia, o receio de ser desvalorizado ou excluído do grupo de pares, o capital simbólico associado ao corpo "trabalhado" e o imediatismo na obtenção dos resultados favorecem o uso de anabolizantes. Faz-se necessária a realização de campanhas de prevenção voltadas para os jovens que aliem a visão crítica na desconstrução dos valores associados ao corpo na sociedade de consumo à veiculação de informação de qualidade sobre os riscos à saúde no consumo de anabolizantes.

This study focused on the reasons for practicing bodybuilding and the use of anabolic steroids, as well as the social representations and uses of the body among bodybuilding steroid users. This ethnographic study involved participant observation in middle and lower-class bodybuilding gyms in Salvador, Bahia State, Brazil, and 43 in-depth interviews with steroid users. Aesthetic reasons are the main motivation for bodybuilding and steroid use in both middle and lower-class users. Dissatisfaction with one's real body as compared to the ideal standard flaunted by the mass media, fear of being devalued or shunned by one's peer groups, the symbolic capital associated with a "pumped-up" body, and the sense of immediacy in obtaining results all contributed to steroid use. Preventive campaigns are needed, targeting young people and combining a critical view and deconstruction of the values assigned to the body by consumer society, counteracted by high-quality information on the health risks associated with anabolic steroid use.

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PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of 24 wk of resistance training at two different intensities on cognitive functions in the elderly. METHODS: Sixty-two elderly individuals were randomly assigned to three groups: CONTROL (N = 23), experimental moderate (EMODERATE; N = 19), and experimental high (EHIGH; N = 20). The volunteers were assessed on physical, hemodynamic, cognitive, and mood parameters before and after the program. RESULTS: On the 1 RM test (P < 0.001), the two experimental groups performed better than the CONTROL group, but they did not show differences between themselves. The EHIGH group gained more lean mass (P = 0.05) than the CONTROL group and performed better on the following tests: digit span forward (P < 0.001), Corsi's block-tapping task backward (P = 0.001), similarities (P = 0.03), Rey-Osterrieth complex figure immediate recall (P = 0.02), Toulouse-Pieron concentration test errors (P = 0.01), SF-36 (general health) (P = 0.04), POMS (tension-anxiety, P = 0.04; depression-dejection, P = 0.03; and total mood disorder, P = 0.03). The EMODERATE group scored higher means than the CONTROL group on digit span forward (P < 0.001), Corsi's block-tapping task backward (P = 0.01), similarities (P = 0.02), Rey-Osterrieth complex figure immediate recall (P = 0.02), SF-36 (general health, P = 0.005; vitality, P = 0.006), POMS (tension-anxiety, P = 0.001; depression-dejection, P = 0.006; anger-hostility, P = 0.006; fatigue-inertia, P = 0.02; confusion-bewilderment, P = 0.02; and total mood disorder, P = 0.001). We also found that IGF-1 serum levels were higher in the experimental groups (EMODERATE, P = 0.02; EHIGH, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Moderate- and high-intensity resistance exercise programs had equally beneficial effects on cognitive functioning.

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Recent studies in different countries have shown an increase in anabolic steroid consumption among young people and the harm caused by indiscriminate use. In Brazil, research on steroid abuse is scarce. The present study examines the risk perception of health problems associated with anabolic steroid consumption among young working-class adults engaged in body-building practices in a poor neighborhood in the city of Salvador, Bahia. The methodology involved an anthropological approach based on qualitative research techniques consisting of ethnography, in-depth interviews, and a focus group with steroid users. The data describe the most common substances consumed and highlight the lack of information among interviewees concerning potential related health hazards, showing that for many steroid consumers the quest for muscle-mass development to achieve an idealized body supersedes the risk of harmful side effects. The results indicate the need for culturally sensitive measures to prevent steroid abuse among youth.

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