RESUMO

Emergências obstétricas são comuns na rotina clínica de cães e gatos. Dentre as emergências obstétricas uma das mais importantes é a distocia. De modo geral, a distocia ocorre quando há falha no momento do parto ou na expulsão do feto, sendo que a causa mais comum de distocia nas duas espécies é a inércia uterina primária. Outra emergência obstétrica de ocorrência frequente em cadelas e gatas é a piometra. Esta doença é uma infecção que ocorre no útero, causada por alterações hormonais na fase do diestro dos animais. As duas enfermidades (distocia e piometra) podem ter o envolvimento de anticoncepcionais, tanto nas cadelas como nas gatas. Em relação ao tratamento, na maioria das vezes, as distocias em cadelas e gatas são abordadas por meio da realização de cesarianas. Em piometra, a terapêutica mais efetiva é a realização de ovariohisterectomia. Neste estudo, 43 cadelas e 20 gatas com emergências obstétricas foram monitoradas durante 90 dias. Entre as cadelas, 29 (67,44%; 29/43) apresentaram piometra e 13 (30,23%; 13/43) distocia. Além disso, uma cadela apresentou prolapso vaginal. Entre as gatas, 13 apresentaram distocia (65%; 13/20) e sete (35%; 7/20) piometra. Algumas dessas emergências obstétricas foram relacionadas ao uso de anticoncepcional. Assim, os clínicos veterinários devem desencorajar esta prática e incentivar a castração das fêmeas.

Obstetric emergencies are common in the clinical routine of dogs and cats. One of the most important obstetric emergencies is dystocia. In general, dystocia occurs when there is a failure at the parturition time or expulsion of the fetus, and the most common cause of dystocia in both species is primary uterine inertia. Another frequently occurring obstetric emergency in bitches and cats is piometra. This disease is an infection that occurs in the uterus caused by hormonal changes in the diestrus phase of animals. In both diseases (dystocia and pyometra), contraceptives can be involved in female dogs and cats. Regarding the treatment, most of the time, dystocias in bitches and cats are addressed through cesarean sections. In pyometra, the most effective therapy is to perform ovariohysterectomy. In the present study, 43 female dogs and 20 female cats with emergency obstetric were monitored during 90 days. Among bitches, 29 (67.44%; 29/43) had pyometra, and 13 (30.23%; 13/43) showed dystocia. In addition, one female dog presented vaginal prolapse. Among the cats, 13 had dystocia (65%; 13/20) and seven (35%; 7/20) pyometra. Some of these obstetric emergencies were related to contraceptive use. Thus, veterinary clinicians must discourage this practice and encourage the neutering of females.

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Para entender a enfrentar os desafios do ato cirúrgico torna-se necessário a leitura obrigatória do livro “O século dos cirurgiões”, onde o autor descreveu os primórdios dos procedimentos antes e após o advento e descoberta das drogas anestésicas, as técnicas cruentas utilizadas na época, às amputações, a operação cesariana, a comprovação da contaminação bacteriana e os princípios da antissepsia Thorwald (2010). As dificuldades em improvisações enfrentadas pelos praticantes pioneiros da medicina veterinária equina estão historicamente relatadas no livro “Ars Veterinária” detalhadamente compiladas por Walker (1991), onde escreveu uma narrativa da importância do cavalo na história do ser humano e sua utilização como meio de transporte, lazer e atividade militar nas grandes batalhas principalmente dos exploradores e dos impérios greco-romano, contendo ilustrações do instrumental cirúrgico artesanal utilizado na época. Nós sabemos menos do que pensamos conhecer, principalmente com o advento a inteligência artificial e dos algoritmos com suas definições na informática e na matemática. “embora os desafios não tenham precedentes e as discordâncias sejam intensas o gênero humano pode se mostrar á altura do momento se mantivermos nossos temores sob controle e formos um pouco mais humildes quanto as nossas opiniões” Harari (2018). A despeito de todas as previsões para o século XXI nada ira superar o talento e a capacidade do médico veterinário, em especial dos cirurgiões. O objetivo desse texto será o de apresentar uma súmula das principais emergências obstétricas das éguas sem a pretensão de esgotar o assunto, mas sim deixar registrado uma parte da experiência pessoal deste profissional embasado na literatura especializada Prestes e Lourenção (2015).

In order to face the challenges of surgical act, reading Jürgen Thorwald's book “The Century of the Surgeon” (Das Jahrhundert der Chirurgen) is a must. In his book, the author describes the beginning of surgical procedures before and after the discovery of anaesthetic drugs, the bloody techniques used in those times, the amputations, the caesarean section, the evidence of bacterial contamination, and the principles of antisepsis Thorwald (2010). The difficulties and improvisations faced by the pioneers in equine medicine are historically reported in the book “ArsVeterinaria”, carefully reported by Walker (1991), who tells about the importance of horses in human history and about the use of those animals for transportation, leisure and military purposes, specially on great battles involving explorers and the Greek-Roman empire, including illustrations of the handmade surgical instruments used in that time. We usually know less than we think we know, especially with the artificial intelligence and algorithms advents, with their definitions in computer science and mathematics. “ Although the challenges are unprecedented and the discordances are intense, the human genre may prove to be timely if we keep our fears under control and if we can be a little more humble than our opinions” Harari (2018). Despite all the predictions for the 21 st century, nothing will outweigh the talent and the ability of the veterinarian, especially surgeons. The aim of this text is to present a summary of the main obstacles faced in mares reproductive surgery, with no pretension to exhaust the subject, but to report part of the personal experience of this professional, grounded in specialized literature. Prestes e Lourenção (2015).

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A preguiça-comum (Bradypus variegatus) é um mamífero de hábitos arborícolas que quando estão em solo se tornam altamente vulneráveis. Não é espécie ameaçada de extinção, mas sofre com ações antrópicas, entre elas acidentes como eletrocussão e atropelamento, que resultam ocasionalmente na perda de membros. O presente estudo trata-se do relato de caso de um macho de Bradypus variegatus recebido no Ambulatório de Animais Silvestres (HOVET/UFRA) após ter sofrido choque elétrico de alta tensão. No exame físico, foi observado a inviabilidade do membro torácico direito e optou-se pela amputação a altura da articulação escapuloumeral. No pós-cirúrgico foi utilizado antibiótico de amplo espectro, anti-inflamatório não-esteroidal associado com analgésico, limpeza e curativo com pomada cicatrizante. A recuperação durou quinze dias e o animal foi encaminhado para o Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. (AU)

Common sloth (Bradypus variegatus) is a mammal with arboreal habits that when on soil becomes highly vulnerable. It is not threatened with extinction, but it suffers from anthropic actions, among them accidents with electrocution and trampling, which occasionally result in loss of limbs. The present study deals with the case report of a Bradypus variegatus male received at the Wild Animal Outpatient Clinic (HOVET/UFRA) after suffering high voltage electric shock. On physical examination, the infeasibility of the right thoracic limb and amputation opted for the height of the humeral scapula joint were observed. In the post-surgical period, a broad-spectrum antibiotic, non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent associated with analgesic, cleaning and dressing with healing ointment were used. The recovery lasted fifteen days and the animal was sent to the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. (AU)

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Para entender a enfrentar os desafios do ato cirúrgico torna-se necessário a leitura obrigatória do livro “O século dos cirurgiões”, onde o autor descreveu os primórdios dos procedimentos antes e após o advento e descoberta das drogas anestésicas, as técnicas cruentas utilizadas na época, às amputações, a operação cesariana, a comprovação da contaminação bacteriana e os princípios da antissepsia Thorwald (2010). As dificuldades em improvisações enfrentadas pelos praticantes pioneiros da medicina veterinária equina estão historicamente relatadas no livro “Ars Veterinária” detalhadamente compiladas por Walker (1991), onde escreveu uma narrativa da importância do cavalo na história do ser humano e sua utilização como meio de transporte, lazer e atividade militar nas grandes batalhas principalmente dos exploradores e dos impérios greco-romano, contendo ilustrações do instrumental cirúrgico artesanal utilizado na época. Nós sabemos menos do que pensamos conhecer, principalmente com o advento a inteligência artificial e dos algoritmos com suas definições na informática e na matemática. “embora os desafios não tenham precedentes e as discordâncias sejam intensas o gênero humano pode se mostrar á altura do momento se mantivermos nossos temores sob controle e formos um pouco mais humildes quanto as nossas opiniões” Harari (2018). A despeito de todas as previsões para o século XXI nada ira superar o talento e a capacidade do médico veterinário, em especial dos cirurgiões. O objetivo desse texto será o de apresentar uma súmula das principais emergências obstétricas das éguas sem a pretensão de esgotar o assunto, mas sim deixar registrado uma parte da experiência pessoal deste profissional embasado na literatura especializada Prestes e Lourenção (2015).(AU)

In order to face the challenges of surgical act, reading Jürgen Thorwald's book “The Century of the Surgeon” (Das Jahrhundert der Chirurgen) is a must. In his book, the author describes the beginning of surgical procedures before and after the discovery of anaesthetic drugs, the bloody techniques used in those times, the amputations, the caesarean section, the evidence of bacterial contamination, and the principles of antisepsis Thorwald (2010). The difficulties and improvisations faced by the pioneers in equine medicine are historically reported in the book “ArsVeterinaria”, carefully reported by Walker (1991), who tells about the importance of horses in human history and about the use of those animals for transportation, leisure and military purposes, specially on great battles involving explorers and the Greek-Roman empire, including illustrations of the handmade surgical instruments used in that time. We usually know less than we think we know, especially with the artificial intelligence and algorithms advents, with their definitions in computer science and mathematics. “ Although the challenges are unprecedented and the discordances are intense, the human genre may prove to be timely if we keep our fears under control and if we can be a little more humble than our opinions” Harari (2018). Despite all the predictions for the 21 st century, nothing will outweigh the talent and the ability of the veterinarian, especially surgeons. The aim of this text is to present a summary of the main obstacles faced in mares reproductive surgery, with no pretension to exhaust the subject, but to report part of the personal experience of this professional, grounded in specialized literature. Prestes e Lourenção (2015).(AU)

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RESUMO

A preguiça-comum (Bradypus variegatus) é um mamífero de hábitos arborícolas que quando estão em solo se tornam altamente vulneráveis. Não é espécie ameaçada de extinção, mas sofre com ações antrópicas, entre elas acidentes como eletrocussão e atropelamento, que resultam ocasionalmente na perda de membros. O presente estudo trata-se do relato de caso de um macho de Bradypus variegatus recebido no Ambulatório de Animais Silvestres (HOVET/UFRA) após ter sofrido choque elétrico de alta tensão. No exame físico, foi observado a inviabilidade do membro torácico direito e optou-se pela amputação a altura da articulação escapuloumeral. No pós-cirúrgico foi utilizado antibiótico de amplo espectro, anti-inflamatório não-esteroidal associado com analgésico, limpeza e curativo com pomada cicatrizante. A recuperação durou quinze dias e o animal foi encaminhado para o Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi.

Common sloth (Bradypus variegatus) is a mammal with arboreal habits that when on soil becomes highly vulnerable. It is not threatened with extinction, but it suffers from anthropic actions, among them accidents with electrocution and trampling, which occasionally result in loss of limbs. The present study deals with the case report of a Bradypus variegatus male received at the Wild Animal Outpatient Clinic (HOVET/UFRA) after suffering high voltage electric shock. On physical examination, the infeasibility of the right thoracic limb and amputation opted for the height of the humeral scapula joint were observed. In the post-surgical period, a broad-spectrum antibiotic, non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent associated with analgesic, cleaning and dressing with healing ointment were used. The recovery lasted fifteen days and the animal was sent to the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi.

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RESUMO

The objective of this study was to identify key reproductive urgencies and some predisposing factors ofcases treated at the Veterinary Hospital "Francisco Edilberto Uchoa Lopes" Maranhao, Brazil. 12.546 recordswere evaluated and found a total of 4.57% of the cases treated . Adult dogs and young cats were the mostaffected and the most common pathologies were pyometra and fetal death, respectively. Factors such as age,species and race influenced the occurrence of cases. Therefore, it is concluded that the changes of thereproductive tract are common in clinical and understanding of associated factors can lead to early diagnosis,with decreased mortality of affected animals.

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RESUMO

The objective of this study was to identify key reproductive urgencies and some predisposing factors ofcases treated at the Veterinary Hospital "Francisco Edilberto Uchoa Lopes" Maranhao, Brazil. 12.546 recordswere evaluated and found a total of 4.57% of the cases treated . Adult dogs and young cats were the mostaffected and the most common pathologies were pyometra and fetal death, respectively. Factors such as age,species and race influenced the occurrence of cases. Therefore, it is concluded that the changes of thereproductive tract are common in clinical and understanding of associated factors can lead to early diagnosis,with decreased mortality of affected animals.(AU)

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Por ser uma espécie pouco estudada, principalmente do ponto de vista morfológico, objetivou-se conhecer a anatomia da traqueia da preguiça (Bradypus variegatus) a fim de fornecer informações para facilitar a eleição de tubo endotraqueal adequado, máscara laríngea ou cânula de traqueostomia para anestesia e procedimentos de emergência, uma vez que a mesma revelou-se possuidora de uma morfologia especial. Foram investigados 11animais jovens de idades diferentes, sendo quatro machos e sete fêmeas, provenientes do Museu Emilio Goeldi e doados a UFRA. Os exemplares foram perfundidos via intramuscular com solução aquosa de formol a 10% para fins de conservação e posteriormente foram dissecados em nível cervico-torácico, por meio de mesoscopia, expondo-se desde a laringe até os brônquios principais direito e esquerdo ao nível do hilo pulmonar. As traqueias foram divididas em cinco regiões (região cervical, região da primeira flexura, região da segunda flexura, região da terceira flexura e região da carina) as quais foram mensuradas altura e largura, assim como o comprimento traqueal total e parte do material foi submetido à técnicas de rotina histológica. Macroscopicamente, destacou-se a presença de sinuosidades acentuadas em porção médio caudal, contemplando a carina. O comprimento médio traqueal foi de 14,6cm. Microscopicamente, a traqueia era constituída por placas separadas de cartilagem hialina constituindo cada anel, sendo revestido por epitélio estratificado ciliado. Apesar da traqueia da preguiça comum apresentar revestimento padrão encontrado na traqueia de outros animais, na literatura não há registros de outras espécies que tenham morfologia macroscópica nas condições descritas, o que nos leva a sugerir, quando necessário acesso para ventilação de emergência, a prática da IOT e não a de traqueostomia.

As the sloth (Bradypus variegatus) is a little studied species, especially from a morphological point of view, this research aimed to define the anatomy of its trachea. The information would facilitate the selection of a proper endotracheal tube, laryngeal mask or tracheostomy tube for anesthesia and emergency procedures, since it appeared to have a special morphology. Eleven young animals of different ages were investigated, four males and seven females, obtained from the Emilio Goeldi Museum and donated to UFRA. The specimens were infused intramuscularly with 10% aqueous formaldehyde for preservation and were later dissected at the cervico-thoracic level, by mesoscopia, exposing the area from the larynx to the right and left primary bronchi at the hilum. The tracheae were divided into five regions (cervical, first flexure, second flexure, third flexure, and carina) for which length and width were measured, as well as the total tracheal length. Sharp windings were seen in the middle caudal portion, including the carina. The average tracheal length was 14.6 cm. Microscopically, the trachea was made up of separate plates of hyaline cartilage forming each ring, lined with ciliated epithelium. Despite the trachea of the common sloth displaying the same lining pattern found in other animals, there are no reports in the literature of other species having a macroscopic morphology as described here, which leads us to suggest, where appropriate access to emergency ventilation, the practice of IOT and not tracheostomy.

Assuntos

RESUMO

Por ser uma espécie pouco estudada, principalmente do ponto de vista morfológico, objetivou-se conhecer a anatomia da traqueia da preguiça (Bradypus variegatus) a fim de fornecer informações para facilitar a eleição de tubo endotraqueal adequado, máscara laríngea ou cânula de traqueostomia para anestesia e procedimentos de emergência, uma vez que a mesma revelou-se possuidora de uma morfologia especial. Foram investigados 11animais jovens de idades diferentes, sendo quatro machos e sete fêmeas, provenientes do Museu Emilio Goeldi e doados a UFRA. Os exemplares foram perfundidos via intramuscular com solução aquosa de formol a 10% para fins de conservação e posteriormente foram dissecados em nível cervico-torácico, por meio de mesoscopia, expondo-se desde a laringe até os brônquios principais direito e esquerdo ao nível do hilo pulmonar. As traqueias foram divididas em cinco regiões (região cervical, região da primeira flexura, região da segunda flexura, região da terceira flexura e região da carina) as quais foram mensuradas altura e largura, assim como o comprimento traqueal total e parte do material foi submetido à técnicas de rotina histológica. Macroscopicamente, destacou-se a presença de sinuosidades acentuadas em porção médio caudal, contemplando a carina. O comprimento médio traqueal foi de 14,6cm. Microscopicamente, a traqueia era constituída por placas separadas de cartilagem hialina constituindo cada anel, sendo revestido por epitélio estratificado ciliado. Apesar da traqueia da preguiça comum apresentar revestimento padrão encontrado na traqueia de outros animais, na literatura não há registros de outras espécies que tenham morfologia macroscópica nas condições descritas, o que nos leva a sugerir, quando necessário acesso para ventilação de emergência, a prática da IOT e não a de traqueostomia.(AU)

As the sloth (Bradypus variegatus) is a little studied species, especially from a morphological point of view, this research aimed to define the anatomy of its trachea. The information would facilitate the selection of a proper endotracheal tube, laryngeal mask or tracheostomy tube for anesthesia and emergency procedures, since it appeared to have a special morphology. Eleven young animals of different ages were investigated, four males and seven females, obtained from the Emilio Goeldi Museum and donated to UFRA. The specimens were infused intramuscularly with 10% aqueous formaldehyde for preservation and were later dissected at the cervico-thoracic level, by mesoscopia, exposing the area from the larynx to the right and left primary bronchi at the hilum. The tracheae were divided into five regions (cervical, first flexure, second flexure, third flexure, and carina) for which length and width were measured, as well as the total tracheal length. Sharp windings were seen in the middle caudal portion, including the carina. The average tracheal length was 14.6 cm. Microscopically, the trachea was made up of separate plates of hyaline cartilage forming each ring, lined with ciliated epithelium. Despite the trachea of the common sloth displaying the same lining pattern found in other animals, there are no reports in the literature of other species having a macroscopic morphology as described here, which leads us to suggest, where appropriate access to emergency ventilation, the practice of IOT and not tracheostomy.(AU)

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RESUMO

O atendimento emergencial e o transporte de equinos fraturados a centros de referência capacitados constituem procedimentos fundamentais para o sucesso de sua recuperação. Após a execução das medidas de estabilização do paciente, manejo das feridas e, se possível, avaliação radiográfica, realiza-se a imobilização externa da fratura de acordo com o local do membro onde esta se encontra, para melhor neutralização das forças atuantes. A imobilização de fraturas do esqueleto apendicular consiste basicamente no emprego de uma bandagem de Robert-Jones, sobreposta por uma ou mais talas posicionada(s) no(s) aspecto(s) dorsal, lateral, medial ou caudal/palmar/plantar. As fraturas cranianas e mandibulares podem ocasionar distúrbios neurológicos e oculares, temporários ou permanentes, e frequentemente acometem a cavidade nasal e os seios paranasais, gerando comprometimento respiratório. O transporte dos pacientes fraturados deve ser efetuado da maneira mais segura possível, com a finalidade de evitar maiores complicações do quadro do paciente. Deste modo, obtêm-se maior possibilidade de recuperação e melhor prognóstico para estes animais.(AU)

The emergency care and transportation of fractured equine patients to trained veterinary hospitals are fundamental procedures for the success of its recovery. After the stabilization procedures, wound management, and, if possible, radiographic evaluation on the patient, external immobilization of the fracture is performed depending on the place where the fracture is located, in order to better neutralize the acting forces. The immobilization of appendicular skeleton fractures consists on basically using Robert-Jones? bandage, overlapped with one or more splints positioned on the dorsal, lateral, medial or caudal/palmar/plantar aspect. Skull fractures may cause neurological and ocular disorders, both temporary or permanent, and frequently affect nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, leading to respiratory problems. The transportation of fractured patients must be carried out in the safest way as possible, in order to avoid further complication to the patient?s condition. Thus, greater recovery possibility and better prognosis for these animals are obtained.(AU)

El atendimiento de emergencia y el transporte de equinos fracturados a centros de referencia capacitados, constituyen procedimientos fundamentales para el éxito de su recuperación. Tras la ejecución de medidas de estabilización del paciente, manejo de las heridas y, si posible, evaluación radiográfica, se realiza la inmovilización externa de la fractura de acuerdo con el lugar del miembro donde ésta se encuentre, para mejor neutralización de las fuerzas actuantes. La inmovilización de fracturas del esqueleto apendicular consiste en utilizar un vendaje de Robert-Jones, sobrepuesto por una o más férulas posicionadas de forma dorsal, lateral, medial o caudal/palmar/plantar. Las fracturas craneanas y mandibulares pueden causar disturbios neurológicos y oculares, temporarios o permanentes, y frecuentemente acometen la cavidad nasal y los senos paranasales, generando comprometimiento respiratorio. El transporte de los pacientes fracturados debe ser efectuado de la manera más segura posible, con el fin de evitar mayores complicaciones en el cuadro del paciente. De este modo se obtiene mayor posibilidad de recuperación y mejor pronostico para estos animales.(AU)

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Responding to a disruptive event is a challenging task for a research facility. One component that must be addressed in a disaster response plan for a facility that houses research animals is the care of those animals during and after a disruptive event. In this article, the author provides recommendations for the preparations, connections and training that are necessary to provide such care. He concludes that the best responses are those that mitigate the unique circumstances involved, which can be developed through practical thinking and problem solving as a community.

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OBJECTIVE: To establish types and rates of injuries and illnesses among urban search-and-rescue (USAR) dogs deployed to Haiti following the January 12, 2010, earthquake. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. ANIMALS: 23 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) USAR dogs deployed to Haiti. PROCEDURES: An online survey was distributed to the handlers of all FEMA USAR dogs deployed to Haiti in response to the January 12, 2010, earthquake. RESULTS: Of 33 handlers with 37 dogs that deployed, 19 (58%) handlers completed the survey, providing information on 23 (62%) dogs. Injuries and illnesses were reported in 10 of the 23 (43%) dogs, 8 of which had multiple issues. Dogs worked a total of 250 days and 1,785 hours. Dehydration and wounding were the most common disorders, with incidences of 3.9 and 3.4 events/1,000 h worked, respectively. Other disorders included ocular discharge and appetite decrease (incidence of each, 1.1 events/1,000 h worked) and weight loss, urination changes, skin infection, ear infection, oral abscess, and nonspecific illness (incidence of each, 0.56 events/1,000 h worked). Overall, there were 12.6 events/1,000 h worked. All health issues were minor and resolved during the deployment or within 2 weeks after demobilization. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested that many of the USAR dogs deployed to Haiti developed acute injuries and illnesses. However, despite the high heat index, long hours worked, and dusty conditions, most injuries and illnesses were minor and all had resolved within 14 days. When logistic supplies for USAR teams are limited, minimal basic medical needs to treat common injuries should be a priority.

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The outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N2 in Mexico in 1994 led to a clear increase in biosecurity measures and improvement of intensive poultry production systems. The control and eradication measures implemented were based on active surveillance, disease detection, depopulation of infected farms and prevention of possible contacts (identified by epidemiological investigations), improvement of biosecurity measures, and restriction of the movement of live birds, poultry products, by-products and infected material. In addition, Mexico introduced a massive vaccination programme, which resulted in the eradication of HPAI in a relatively short time in two affected areas that had a high density of commercial poultry.

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The authors review the policies designed to prevent and deal with animal health emergencies which have been implemented in countries of South America. They describe the evolution of the epidemiological situation of the continent, the new arrangements for international trade in animals and products of animal origin arising from the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the consequences of such developments for livestock production in South America. Veterinary systems used to prevent and deal with emergencies in the eleven OIE Member Countries on the continent are described, together with emerging problems which confront the Veterinary Services of the continent, namely: exotic diseases, abnormal occurrence of endemic diseases subject to control programmes, faults in food-safety mechanisms, diseases which have an environmental impact, and problems connected with animal welfare. The emergencies which present the greatest risk to South America are foot and mouth diseases, transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome, food poisoning, Newcastle disease and fowl plague. Other problems are the appearance of new strains of existing agents, and the presence of resistant individuals among species of bacteria or harmful arthropods. The authors emphasise the need to co-ordinate the prevention of emergencies with development work at the international level, particularly regional and international agreements, harmonization of procedures, progress in animal health and public health, risk analysis, etc. These systems and methods of prevention have a contribution to make in enhancing the potential of animal production in South America, and the adoption of stricter health and quality standards, according to criteria established by the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.

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Screwworm myiasis, caused by infestation of even minor wounds by the obligative parasitic larval stages of the New World screwworm (NWS) (Cochliomyia hominivorax) or Old World screwworm (OWS) (Chrysomya bezziana) flies, is a major cause of livestock morbidity and mortality in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. The two parasites occur in different hemispheres but are remarkably homologous. Animal health emergencies result from the invasion of new territories by the parasites or, in the case of NWS, reinfestation of areas from which the parasite had been eradicated after great effort and expense. The author reviews the biology of the parasites and the effects of screwworm, in addition to prevention of infestation upon the introduction of animals. Examples of three programmes or events are described. The first is the eradication of previously exotic NWS from an epizootic in Libya before the parasite spread to become enzootic in the Mediterranean Basin and eventually other areas of the Eastern Hemisphere. The second example reviews the serious consequences of the extension of the range of OWS into Iraq where conditions at the time were favourable for propagation and unfavourable for control. The third example describes the NWS programme strategy in North and Central America which, for forty years, has been to progressively achieve eradication and then protection of areas from north to south on that continent, employing the sterile insect technique (SIT). Outbreaks in areas where screwworm has already been eradicated divert costly programme resources and slow progress southwards, and are considered emergencies. Some problems encountered and the solutions found during the height of the eradication programme in Mexico are described. Although to date eradication of screwworms has only been accomplished with the application of SIT, this technique alone will not eradicate the pest. The author describes other elements which are required to control or eradicate screwworms. Programmes for this highly mobile parasite encompass large geographic areas and consequently require active and continuous international participation.

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