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Elevational gradients constitute excellent systems for understanding the mechanisms that generate and maintain global biodiversity patterns. Climatic gradients associated with elevation show strong influence on species distribution in mountains. The study of mountains covered by the same habitat type is an ideal scenario to compare alternatives to the energy hypotheses. Our aim was to investigate how changes in climatic conditions along the elevational gradient drive α- and ß-diversity of four taxa in a mountain system located within a grassland biome. We sampled ants, spiders, birds and plants, and measured climatic variables at six elevational bands (with 10 sampling sites each) established between 470 and 1,000 masl on a mountain from the Ventania Mountain System, Argentina. Species richness per site and ß-diversity (turnover and nestedness) between the lowest band and upper sites were estimated. For most taxa, species richness declined at high elevations and energy, through temperature, was the major driver of species richness for ants, plants and birds, prevailing over productivity and water availability. The major ß-diversity component was turnover for plants, spiders and birds, and nestedness for ants. The unique environmental conditions of the upper bands could favour the occurrence of specialist and endemic species.

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Kiekie Polotow & Brescovit, 2018 is a Neotropical genus of Ctenidae, with most of its species occuring in Central America. In this study, we review the systematics of Kiekie and describe five new species and the unknown females of K. barrocolorado Polotow & Brescovit, 2018 and K. garifuna Polotow & Brescovit, 2018, and the unknown male of K. verbena Polotow & Brescovit, 2018. In addition, we described the female of K. montanense which was wrongly assigned as K. griswoldi Polotow & Brescovit, 2018 (both species are sympatric). We provided a modified diagnosis for previously described species based on the morphology of the newly discovered species and in situ photographs of living specimens. We inferred a molecular phylogeny using four nuclear (histone H3, 28S rRNA, 18S rRNA and ITS-2) and three mitochondrial genes (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I or COI, 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA) to test the monophyly of the genus and the evolutionary relationships of its species. Lastly, we reconstruct the historical biogeography and map diversity and endemism distributional patterns of the different species. This study increased the number of known species of Kiekie from 13 to 18, and we describe a new genus, Eldivo which is sister lineage of Kiekie. Most of the diversity and endemism of the genus Kiekie is located in the montane ecosystems of Costa Rica followed by the lowland rainforest of the Pacific side (Limon Basin). Kiekie originated in the North America Tropical region, this genus started diversifying in the Late Miocene and spread to Lower Central America and South America. In that region, Kiekie colonized independently several times the montane ecosystems corresponding to periods of uplifting of Talamanca and Central Cordilleras.

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Background: Members of the genus Cupiennius Simon, 1891 are categorized as wandering spiders and are part of the family Trechaleidae. The genomics and proteomics of Cupiennius spiders from North America remain uncharacterized. The present study explores for the first time molecular data from the endemic species Cupiennius chiapanensis Medina, 2006, and also presents new data for Cupiennius salei (Keyserling, 1878), both collected in southern Mexico. Methods: In total, 88 Cupiennius specimens were collected from southern Mexico and morphologically identified. DNA was extracted and the mitochondrial COI fragment was amplified. COI sequences were analyzed, and a phylogenetic tree was inferred for species from the Americas. Genetic diversity was analyzed using haplotype networks and gene distances. Venom was obtained from C. chiapanensis and C. salei by electrostimulation. The venom was separated by HPLC, visualized using SDS-PAGE, and quantified for use in toxicity bioassays in mice and insects. Results: Analysis of COI sequences from C. chiapanensis showed 94% identity with C. salei, while C. salei exhibited 94-97% identity with sequences from Central and South American conspecifics. The venom from C. chiapanensis exhibited toxic activity against crickets. Venoms from C. chiapanensis and C. salei caused death in Anastrepha obliqua flies. Analysis of venom fractions from C. salei and C. chiapanensis revealed molecular masses of a similar size as some previously reported toxins and neurotoxic components. We determined the amino acid sequences of ChiaTx1 and ChiaTx2, toxins that are reported here for the first time and which showed toxicity against mice and insects. Conclusion: Our work is the first to report COI-based DNA barcoding sequences from southern Mexican Cupiennius spiders. Compounds with toxic activity were identified in venom from both species.(AU)

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The aims of the present research was to find out the diversity of family Araneidae in district Swat Pakistan and to provide updated checklist of the family Araneidae from Pakistan. Also their occurrence throughout the year was given from District Swat Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Data was collected from January 2018 to December-2018 from seven different Tehsils of District Swat by using different methods like pitfall trap, ground hand collection, air hand collection and were then preserved in plastic vials and appendorf tubes by using 70% ethanol. Camera mounted on microscope was used for photography. By using literature from World Spider Catalog, 2022, spiders were identified to species level. In a ttal of 1243 specimens of family Araneidae 4 genera and 7 species were identified. Dominant species with great number of specimen collected was Cyrtophora citricolla with 229 (18.4%) samples, followed by Bojaranius mitificus (15.7%), Neoscona Scylla (15.4%), Argiope lobata (14.8), Neoscona theisi (14.6%) and Neoscona polyspinippes (13.8%) respectively. While lowest collection was done of Argiope versicolor with 90 (7.3%) samples. High occurrence of spiders was studied during July 187 samples. Fluctuation in temperature can affect the diversity of spiders observed and recorded in present study with lowest collection done in low temperature. Moreover, the humidity also play a great role in spiders' population and occurrence.

Os objetivos da presente pesquisa foram descobrir a diversidade da família Araneidae no distrito Swat, Paquistão, e fornecer uma lista atualizada da família Araneidae nesse país. Sua ocorrência ao longo do ano também foi dada no Distrito Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Paquistão. Os dados foram coletados de janeiro de 2018 a dezembro de 2018 de sete diferentes Tehsils, do Distrito Swat, usando métodos diferentes, como armadilha de queda, coleta no solo com a mão e coleta no ar com a mão, e foram então preservados em frascos de plástico e tubos eppendorf usando etanol 70%. Foi usada câmera montada em microscópio para fotografia. Utilizando a literatura do World Spider Catalog (2022), as aranhas foram identificadas em nível de espécie. Em um total de 1.243 exemplares da família Araneidae, foram identificados 4 gêneros e 7 espécies. A espécie dominante com grande número de espécimes coletados foi Cyrtophora citricola com 229 (18,4%) amostras, seguida por Bojaranius mitificus (15,7%), Neoscona scylla (15,4%), Argiope lobata (14,8%), Neoscona theisi (14,6%) e Neoscona polyspinippes (13,8%), respectivamente. Já a menor coleta foi feita de Argiope versicolor com 90 (7,3%) amostras. A alta ocorrência de aranhas foi estudada em julho, com 187 amostras. A oscilação na temperatura pode afetar a diversidade de aranhas observadas e registradas no presente estudo com menor coleta feita em baixa temperatura. Além disso, a umidade também desempenha um grande papel na população e ocorrência de aranhas.

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A faunistic survey in the Maule region in central-southern Chile resulted in the discovery and description of a new species of the spider genus Osornolobus: O. violetaparra n. sp., based on males collected using pitfall traps in the province of Talca. This is the northernmost record of the genus in Chile, previously known from Ñuble to Magallanes.

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Salticidae is the most diverse family of Araneae and in Brazil, there are 667 species. Among these species, five are synanthropic exotics: Plexippus paykulli (Audouin, 1826), Hasarius adansoni (Audouin, 1826), Menemerus bivittatus (Dufour, 1831), M. nigli Wesolowska & Freudenschuss, 2012 and Thyene coccineovittata (Simon, 1886). To understand the current distribution of these species in Brazil, seven collections of 643 lots were examined from seven Brazilian zoological collections. The synanthropic exotic species with the highest records were Plexippus paykulli, Menemerus bivittatus, and Hasarius adansoni, generally collected and associated with human dwellings and buildings. They are present in all regions (North, Northeast, Midwest, and South macro-regions), with the largest region, in all regions of the country in 22 states and 98 municipalities, followed by Hasarius adansoni in 17 states and 88 municipalities, Menemerus bivittatus in 19 states and 68 municipalities. Menemerus nigli and Thyene coccineovittata are from recent introductions that occurred in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.(AU)

Salticidae é a família mais diversa de Araneae e no Brasil ocorrem 667 espécies, dentre elas cinco são exóticas sinantrópicas: Plexippus paykulli (Audouin, 1826), Menemerus bivittatus (Dufour, 1831), Hasarius adansoni (Audouin, 1826), Menemerus nigli Wesolowska & Freudenschuss, 2012 e Thyene coccineovittata (Simon, 1886). Foram examinados 643 lotes destas cinco espécies no Brasil, depositados em sete coleções zoológicas brasileiras. As espécies exóticas sinantrópicas com maior número de registros foram Plexippus paykulli, Hasarius adansoni e Menemerus bivittatus, na maioria dos casos coletadas associadas a habitações e edificações humanas. Elas estão presentes em todas as macrorregiões do país (Norte, Nordeste, Centro-Oeste, Sudeste e Sul), sendo P. paykulli a que possui a maior distribuição, ocorrendo em 22 estados e 98 municípios, seguido de H. adansoni em 17 estados e 88 municípios e M. bivittatus em 19 estados e 68 municípios. Menemerus nigli e Thyene coccineovittata, são introduções recentes, ocorrendo apenas na cidade do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.(AU)

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In this paper a new species of Diphya Nicolet, 1849, D. napo sp. nov. is described based on males and females from Ecuador. The female of Diphya bicolor Vellard, 1926 is described and illustrated for the first time and new records are presented. Oarces ornatus Mello-Leitão, 1935 and Azilia eximia (Mello-Leitão, 1940) are synonymized with D. bicolor, being A. eximia removed from the synonym of Azilia Keyserling, 1881 and being Cardimia Mello-Leitão, 1940 considered synonym of Diphya.(AU)

Neste artigo uma nova espécie de Diphya Nicolet, 1849, D. napo sp. nov. é descrita com base em machos e fêmeas do Equador. A fêmea de Diphya bicolor Vellard, 1926 é descrita e ilustrada pela primeira vez e registros novos são apresentados. Oarces ornatus Mello-Leitão, 1935 e Azilia eximia (Mello-Leitão, 1940) são sinonimizadas com D. bicolor, sendo A. eximia retirada da sinonímia de Azilia Keyserling, 1881 e Cardimia Mello-Leitão, 1940 é considerado sinônimo de Diphya.(AU)

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The spider genus Euryopis Menge, 1868 (Theridiidae) currently comprises 76 described species worldwide and only two described species from Brazil and none for Bolivia. In this paper four new species of Euryopis from Brazil and Bolivia are described and illustrated: Euryopis candiota n. sp.; Euryopis nasuta n. sp.; Euryopis catarinensis n. sp. all from Brazil and Euryopis boliviensis n. sp. from Bolivia. New records from Brazil are provided for E. camis Levi, 1963 and E. spinifera O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1895.

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The species of Patrera Simon, 1903 from Brazilian Atlantic Forest biome are revised. With more than 2715 specimens examined, nine species were found and, of these, only one new species is described, Patrera teresopolis n. sp. from state of Rio de Janeiro. The other valid names were described by a single author: Patrera procera (Keyserling, 1891), P. longipes (Keyserling, 1891), P. virgata (Keyserling, 1891), P. cita (Keyserling, 1891), P. tensa (Keyserling, 1891), n. comb., P. opertanea (Keyserling, 1891), n. comb., P. concolor (Keyserling, 1891), n. comb. and P. recentissima (Keyserling, 1891), n. comb. (Later four here transferred from Teudis O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1896) and P. pellucida (Keyserling, 1891), n. comb. (here transferred from Sillus F.O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1900). The males of Patrera opertanea, P. pellucida and P. recentissima are described for the first time. The species Teudis itatiayae Mello-Leitão, 1915 and Sillus delicatus Mello-Leitão, 1922 are synonymized with P. longipes; Osoriella pallidoemanu Mello-Leitão, 1926 is synonymized with P. concolor. All species are described, illustrated and mapped. The known distribution of Patrera procera and P. longipes is expanded to Argentina and that of Patrera procera to Paraguay.

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Specimens of the palpimanid spider subfamily Otiothopinae Platnick are commonly collected in soil and leaf litter in tropical and subtropical environments (Platnick 1975; Cala-Riquelme et al. 2018). However, otiothopines are generally poorly represented in biological collections and usually collected in low numbers during field campaigns, with many species represented by only a single sex (Cala-Riquelme et al. 2018). These difficulties, combined with our scarce knowledge of the biology and natural history of these spiders, mean that there are regional gaps in our systematic understanding of the group. Thus, taxonomic additions and notes about natural history are essential in order to increase our knowledge of the group and gradually close those gaps.

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The family Oonopidae Simon, 1890 is composed of tiny spiders between 0.5 and 4mm (Baehr et al. 2012) that are distributed all over the world (Platnick et al. 2020; World Spider Catalog 2021). They occupy diverse habitats, mainly in tropical and subtropical regions (Platnick et al. 2020), generally associated with the soil and litter fauna (Ranasinghe Benjamin 2018). Oonopidae is among the eight most diverse spider families with 114 genera and 1872 species (World Spider Catalog 2021). Most of this diversity was discovered after 2006, as a result of the Planetary Biodiversity Inventory (PBI) project: Goblin Spider (Platnick et al. 2012). Recent molecular phylogenetic analyses recovered Oonopidae as monophyletic (Wheeler et al. 2017), hypothesis supported by the presence of a synapomorphic pair of completely fused testicles (Burger Michalik 2010). Brazil has a great diversity of Oonopidae (e.g., Brescovit et al. 2012a; Platnick et al. 2013; Feitosa et al. 2017), including the genus Predatoroonops Brescovit, Rheims Ott 2012, endemic to the Atlantic Forest, that includes 17 species (World Spider Catalog 2021). The genus can be recognized by the male chelicerae frontally modified, with one or two pairs of distally sclerotized, and sometimes branched, apophyses, and by the pars cephalica dorsally squared (Brescovit et al. 2012b). In this paper, we describe a new species of the genus, based on a male specimen from the State of Minas Gerais: Predatoroonops stani sp. nov.. Also, we give new records for Predatoroonops yautja Brescovit, Rheims Santos, 2012 from the same state and a distribution map with all the records of Predatoroonops along the Atlantic Forest.

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Here we examine the species of the Selenops isopodus species group: S. isopodus Mello-Leitão, 1941, S. arikok Crews, 2011, and S. curazao Alayón, 2001. We describe the female and male of S. bullerengue sp. nov. from Colombia and synonymize S. marilus Corronca, 1998a with S. isopodus, providing diagnoses and complete descriptions of both sexes of S. isopodus. Detailed images and a key to species in the group are provided. The distribution of all selenopid species in Colombia is reviewed using published records, museum specimens, and citizen science data from inaturalist.org.

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The spider family Sicariidae includes three genera, Hexophthalma, Sicarius and Loxosceles. The three genera share a common characteristic in their venoms: the presence of Sphingomyelinases D (SMase D). SMases D are considered the toxins that cause the main pathological effects of the Loxosceles venom, that is, those responsible for the development of loxoscelism. Some studies have shown that Sicarius spiders have less or undetectable SMase D activity in their venoms, when compared to Hexophthalma. In contrast, our group has shown that Sicarius ornatus, a Brazilian species, has active SMase D and toxic potential to envenomation. However, few species of Sicarius have been characterized for their toxic potential. In order to contribute to a better understanding about the toxicity of Sicarius venoms, the aim of this study was to characterize the toxic properties of male and female venoms from Sicarius tropicus and compare them with that from Loxosceles laeta, one of the most toxic Loxosceles venoms. We show here that S. tropicus venom presents active SMases D. However, regarding hemolysis development, it seems that these toxins in this species present different molecular mechanisms of action than that described for Loxosceles venoms, whereas it is similar to those present in bacteria containing SMase D. Besides, our results also suggest that, in addition to the interspecific differences, intraspecific variations in the venoms' composition may play a role in the toxic potential of venoms from Sicarius species.

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The knowledge on the diversity of the genus Patrera Simon in Colombia is widely expanded. P. auricoma (L. Koch, 1866) and P. armata (Chickering, 1940) are redescribed and their females are described for the first time and recorded from Cundinamarca and Meta departments, respectively. Aysha strandi (Caporiacco, 1947) is synonymized with P. armata. Three species groups in the genus Patrera are proposed to include the bulk of its species (fulvastra, florezi, and philipi). These groups are diagnosed based on sexual characters. Twenty-five new species are herein described, illustrated and mapped: P. anchicaya n. sp. (♂♀); P. barbacoas n. sp. (♂); P. borjai n. sp. (♂♀); P. danielae n. sp. (♂♀); P. dimar n. sp. (♂♀); P. perafani n. sp. (♂♀); P. platnicki n. sp. (♂); P. quillacinga n. sp. (♂♀), and P. ramirezi n. sp. (♂♀) into the fulvastra species group. P. bonaldoi n. sp. (♂♀); P. boteroi n. sp. (♂); P. carvalhoi n. sp. (♂♀); P. florezi n. sp. (♂♀); P. perijaensis n. sp. (♀); P. quimbaya n. sp. (♂♀); P. sampedroi n. sp. (♂); P. yukpa n. sp. (♂♀), and P. wiwa n. sp. (♂♀) in florezi species group. P. sutu n. sp. (♂); P. chucurui n. sp. (♂♀); P. dawkinsi n. sp. (♂); P. dentata n. sp. (♂); P. dracula n. sp. (♂); P. kuryi n. sp. (♂♀), and P. longitibialis n. sp. (♂) in philipi species group. We also briefly discuss some aspects of the species groups' genital morphology, based on a comparison with the type, P. fulvastra Simon. Additionally, distribution maps for all Colombian species including new records for P. armata (Chickering, 1940), P. auricoma (L. Koch, 1866) and P. suni Dupérré Tapia, 2016 from Cundinamarca, Meta and Nariño departments are also herein included.

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As large amounts of natural environments are lost due to urbanization, the role of remnant native vegetation in the preservation of biodiversity has become even more significant. Remnant native forest patches are essential refugia for flora and fauna and are crucial for the maintenance of ecosystem processes in urbanized landscapes. We evaluated the influence of landscape structure on ants and spiders associated with Atlantic Forest remnants in urban landscapes. We sampled 14 forest areas in the Metropolitan Region of Salvador and tested the effect of the landscapes' proportion of forest cover, mean landscape isolation, and mean landscape shape complexity on the taxonomic and functional richness and the community composition of both groups. The species collected were classified into functional groups based on behavioral attributes and environmental preferences. Overall, there were strong adverse effects of forest loss, decreased connectivity, and an increase in edge effects associated with the mean shape complexity of the forest remnants. However, the spiders responded to all three landscape structure characteristics whereas the ants only responded to the landscape mean shape complexity. Our findings indicate that the maintenance of urban forest habitats is essential for the conservation of biodiversity in the Metropolitan Region of Salvador and the preservation of ecological functions performed by species within the forest areas.

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A new species of Euathlus Ausserer, 1875 (Araneae: Theraphosidae: Theraphosinae), Euathlus vanessae sp. nov. is described and diagnosed. The genus is known from Chile and Argentina, and E. vanessae sp. nov. represents the first record for the genus in Peru, being the new northernmost limit of its known distribution. Distribution and natural history data are provided. Additionally, the conservation status of the new species is discussed and it is proposed as Endangered (EN) according to IUCN criteria.(AU)

Se describe y diagnostica una nueva especie de Euathlus Ausserer, 1875 (Araneae: Theraphosidae: Theraphosinae), Euathlus vanessae sp. nov. El género es conocido en Chile y Argentina, y E. vanessae sp. nov. representa el primer registro oficial del género para el Perú, siendo el nuevo límite más septentrional de distribución conocida. Se proporcionan datos de distribución e historia natural, adicionalmente se discute el estado de conservación de la nueva especie y se propone como En Peligro (EN) según los criterios de la UICN.(AU)

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A new species of Bumba Pérez-Miles, Bonaldo & Miglio, 2014 is described and illustrated. This species comprises the first record of the genus for Bolivia. Bumba paunaka sp. nov. differs from the other species in the genus in the black longitudinal band on abdomen, in the long and slender embolus of the palpal bulb and in the thin and long subapical spine of the retrolateral branch of tibial apophysis. Females additionally differ in the spermathecal morphology. Finally, a distribution map for all known species of Bumba is presented.(AU)

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A new species of Bumba Pérez-Miles, Bonaldo & Miglio, 2014 is described and illustrated. This species comprises the first record of the genus for Bolivia. Bumba paunaka sp. nov. differs from the other species in the genus in the black longitudinal band on abdomen, in the long and slender embolus of the palpal bulb and in the thin and long subapical spine of the retrolateral branch of tibial apophysis. Females additionally differ in the spermathecal morphology. Finally, a distribution map for all known species of Bumba is presented.

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A new species of Euathlus Ausserer, 1875 (Araneae: Theraphosidae: Theraphosinae), Euathlus vanessae sp. nov. is described and diagnosed. The genus is known from Chile and Argentina, and E. vanessae sp. nov. represents the first record for the genus in Peru, being the new northernmost limit of its known distribution. Distribution and natural history data are provided. Additionally, the conservation status of the new species is discussed and it is proposed as Endangered (EN) according to IUCN criteria.

Se describe y diagnostica una nueva especie de Euathlus Ausserer, 1875 (Araneae: Theraphosidae: Theraphosinae), Euathlus vanessae sp. nov. El género es conocido en Chile y Argentina, y E. vanessae sp. nov. representa el primer registro oficial del género para el Perú, siendo el nuevo límite más septentrional de distribución conocida. Se proporcionan datos de distribución e historia natural, adicionalmente se discute el estado de conservación de la nueva especie y se propone como En Peligro (EN) según los criterios de la UICN.

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Introducción: Los arácnidos de la isla del Coco representan 50 especies, ubicadas en seis órdenes y 26 familias. El trabajo de actualización del conocimiento de la fauna de este grupo de animales en la isla inició no sistemáticamente hace más de 127 años, donde un escorpión se convirtió en el primer espécimen citado del grupo. Objetivo: Actualizar la lista de especies de arácnidos para la Isla del Coco, aportando nueva información sobre taxones poco conocidos y describiendo nuevas especies. Métodos: Durante dos expediciones, llevadas a cabo del 11 al 22 de abril 2013 y del 8 al 18 julio 2017, se recolectaron arácnidos con métodos manuales y trampas, se preservaron en etanol y se realizaron las identificaciones en laboratorio. Los rangos de distribución están basados en el catálogo de arañas del mundo, las identificaciones realizadas, se respaldan en la literatura específica citada para cada caso y las sugerencias biogeográficas presentadas de los grupos o especies tratadas, surgen del análisis de los patrones de distribución general que presenta el género o grupo citado. Resultados: Los hallazgos principales incluyen la adición de nuevos registros de especies para la isla, un orden, 11 familias y 29 especies, de las cuales tres son nuevas para la ciencia. Conclusiones: Es necesario continuar con el inventario de la aracnofauna de la isla, principalmente en los sectores que no han podido ser previamente muestreados. A nivel biogeográfico la fauna de arañas que habita la isla está mayormente relacionadas con Centroamérica, mientras que las especies de hábitos cosmopolitas posiblemente sean de reciente introducción.

Introduction: The arachnids of Isla del Coco represent 50 species, located in six orders and 26 families. The work of updating the knowledge of the fauna of this group of animals on the island began not systematically more than 127 years ago, where a scorpion became the first specimen cited in the group. Objective: To update the list of arachnid species for Coco Island, providing new information about little-known taxa and describing new species. Methods: During two expeditions, carried out from April 11 to 22, 2013 and from July 8 to 18, 2017, arachnids were collected with manual methods and traps, preserved in ethanol and identified in the laboratory. The distribution ranges are based on the spiders catalog of the world, the identifications made, are supported by the specific literature cited for each case and the biogeographical suggestions presented of the groups or species treated, arise from the analysis of the general distribution patterns that presents the genus or group cited. Results: The main findings include the addition of new species records for the island, one order, 11 families and 29 species, of which three are new to science. Conclusions: It is necessary to continue with the inventory of the island fauna, mainly in the sectors that could not be previously sampled. At the biogeographical level, the spider fauna that inhabits the island is mostly related to Central America, while the species with cosmopolitan habits are possibly of recent introduction.

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