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In Mexico, shamans are recognized for the gift of entering a deep trance that allows them to know the origin of the diseases and conflicts that afflict people. They commonly treat patients through limpias (cleansing) to extract negative elements sent by a witch or that were "collected" in places that harbor "evil winds." We present a case study of an 81-year-old Mexican shaman who noticed her gift in childhood. Electroencephalographic recordings were made while the shaman performed three activities: reading cards to diagnose a patient and answer the questions he posed; limpia with chicken eggs, stones, and bells to absorb adverse "things"; and the incorporation trance through which the deceased is believed to occupy the shaman's body to use it as a communication channel. Alpha activity was observed when concentrated, suggesting a hypnagogic-like state. Predominant beta and gamma oscillations were observed, suggesting a potential plastic phenomenon that modulates the assimilation of external and internal referents guiding temporal schemes for action, attention, and the integration of mnemonic, sensory, and imaginative elements. We used a neuroanthropological approach to understand shamanic trance as a biological potential of the human brain to induce non-ordinary states of consciousness linked to cultural beliefs and practices.

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This study is an interdisciplinary research into Uruguayan ayahuasca users belonging to one neo-shamanic and one Santo Daime group. The study involved the chemical analysis of ayahuasca samples, an ethnographic description of the two traditions and rituals, and the application of psychometric scales to measure personality differences, and the acute psychological effects during an ayahuasca ritual. Personality measurements showed lower scores for Santo Daime in Neuroticism-Anxiety, Dependence, Low Self-Esteem, Anger and Restlessness. These differences may be related to the presence of participants under treatment in the neo-shamanic group and/or to the protective effects of a church religion such as Santo Daime. Regarding acute effects, the neo-shamanic group showed higher scores in Somesthesia and Perception, which can be related to the high-arousal ritual setting. Chemical analysis for the ayahuasca samples showed a typical composition of alkaloids. No adulterants were found. The sample from the neo-shamanic group displayed a higher ß-carbolines:DMT ratio compared to the Santo Daime sample, which could be related to the higher effects observed for Somesthesia for the neo-shamanic group. Significant positive correlations between some personality traits and acute effects were found only in the neo-shamanic group, which may be related to the more individualistic approach of this tradition.

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Amerindians, living in a perspective of synchronicity, attribute to symmetry a negative value that produces an understanding of unstable dualism cosmologies, in a continuous and dynamic imbalance, in a notion of complementarity between conscious and unconscious. These notions are in line with the view of synchronicity proposed by Jung (1952/1972) and Cambray (2013), a view that expands temporal, acausal boundaries, within a perspective of interconnection, resonance and correspondence. Amerindian epistemologies break-up the discontinuity between animals and humans. By establishing a parallel with the Jungian concept of the relationship between unconscious and conscious, we reach a dimension of personification of both, a continuous and permanent flow of meaning. We introduce the jaguar as a symbol of Amerindian cultures and as an archetypal image of the numinosum that activates the unconscious, in asymmetrical and symmetrical movements. This is a qualitative contribution of indigenous mythologies to the understanding of the relationship between unconscious and conscious. Through perspectivism and Amerindian shamanism, we reflect on the archetypal image of the jaguar, as a mythological Latin American knowledge, which contributes to an understanding of the human being in the world, in an instinctive and spiritual integration. Recognizing this cosmos expands the ability to observe and access another point of view, in which the human being is seen in the jaguar, a personification or psychification of his unconscious. In clinical practice, it means finding the humanity that was left behind by that human who became an animal. The shaman, as a therapist, takes on the role of an active interlocutor in the exchange of human and non-human subjectivities, in an amplification process.

Les Amérindiens, vivants dans une perspective de synchronicité, attribuent à la symétrie une valeur négative, qui produit une compréhension des cosmologies du dualisme instable, dans un déséquilibre continu et dynamique, avec la notion de complémentarité entre conscient et inconscient. Ces notions sont en cohérence avec la vision de synchronicité proposée par Jung (1952/1972) et Cambray (2013), une vision qui élargit les frontières temporelles et acausales, dans une perspective d'interconnexion, de résonnance et de correspondance. Les épistémologies amérindiennes cassent la discontinuité entre les animaux et les humains. En établissant un parallèle avec le concept de relation entre inconscient et conscient, nous atteignons la dimension de personnification des deux, un flux permanent de sens. Nous introduisons le jaguar en tant que symbole des cultures amérindiennes et image archétypale du numineux qui active l'inconscient, dans des mouvements asymétriques et symétriques. Il s'agit là d'une contribution qualitative des mythologies indigènes à la compréhension de la relation entre inconscient et conscient. A travers le perspectivisme et le chamanisme amérindien, nous réfléchissons à l'image archétypale du jaguar, en tant que savoir mythologique Amérindien, qui contribue à la compréhension de l'être humain dans le monde, dans une intégration instinctive et spirituelle. Reconnaitre ce cosmos élargit notre capacité à observer et à avoir accès à un autre point de vue, dans lequel l'être humain est vu dans le jaguar, une personnification ou psychification de son inconscient. Dans la pratique clinique, cela signifie de trouver l'humanité qui a été abandonnée par l'humain qui est devenu animal. Le chamane, en tant que thérapeute, prend le rôle d'un interlocuteur actif dans l'échange de subjectivités humaines et non-humaines, dans un processus d'amplification.

Los indios americanos, habitando en una perspectiva de sincronicidad, atribuyen a la simetría un valor negativo dando lugar a una comprensión sobre las cosmologías de un dualismo inestable, en un desbalance continuo y dinámico, y en una noción de complementariedad entre consciente e inconsciente. Estas nociones son similares con la mirada sobre sincronicidad propuesta por Jung (1952/1972) y por Cambray (2013), una mirada que expande las fronteras temporales, acausales, dentro de una perspectiva de interconexión, resonancia y correspondencia. Las epistemologías amerindias rompen con la discontinuidad entre animales y humanos. Al establecer un paralelismo con el concepto Junguiano de la relación entre inconsciente y consciente, alcanzamos una dimensión en la cual se personifica a ambos, en un constante y permanente fluir de sentidos. Introducimos el yaguar como símbolo de las culturas amerindias y como imagen arquetípica de lo numinoso que se activa en el inconsciente, en movimientos asimétricos y simétricos. Es una contribución cualitativa de las mitologías indígenas a la comprensión de la relación entre inconsciente y consciente. A través del perspectivismo y del shamanismo amerindio, nos proponemos reflexionar sobre la imagen arquetípica del yaguar, como conocimiento mitológico latinoamericano, el cual contribuye a una comprensión del ser humano en el mundo, en una integración instintiva y espiritual. Reconocer este cosmos expande la habilidad para observar y acceder a otro punto de vista, en el que el ser humano es visto en el yaguar, como una personificación o psiquización de su inconsciente. En la práctica clínica, significa encontrar la humanidad que fue dejada atrás por aquel humano devenido en animal. El/la shaman/a como terapeuta, toma el rol de un interlocutor activo en el intercambio de subjetividades humanas y no-humanas, en un proceso de amplificación.

Os ameríndios, vivendo em uma perspectiva de sincronicidade, atribuem à simetria um valor negativo que produz uma compreensão das cosmologias instáveis do dualismo, em um desequilíbrio contínuo e dinâmico, em uma noção de complementaridade entre consciente e inconsciente. Essas noções estão de acordo com a visão de sincronicidade proposta por Jung (1952/1972) e Cambray (2013), uma visão que expande as fronteiras temporais e acausais, dentro de uma perspectiva de interconexão, ressonância e correspondência. Epistemologias ameríndias rompem a descontinuidade entre animais e humanos. Estabelecendo um paralelo com o conceito junguiano da relação entre inconsciente e consciente, alcançamos uma dimensão de personificação de ambos, um fluxo contínuo e permanente de significado. Apresentamos a onça-pintada como um símbolo das culturas ameríndias e como uma imagem arquetípica do numinoso que ativa o inconsciente, em movimentos assimétricos e simétricos. Esta é uma contribuição qualitativa das mitologias indígenas para a compreensão da relação entre inconsciente e consciente. Através do perspectivismo e do xamanismo ameríndio, refletimos sobre a imagem arquetípica da onça-pintada, como um conhecimento mitológico latino-americano, que contribui para uma compreensão do ser humano no mundo, em uma integração instintiva e espiritual. Reconhecer esse cosmos expande a capacidade de observar e acessar outro ponto de vista, no qual o ser humano é visto na onça-pintada, uma personificação ou ou psiqueificação de seu inconsciente. Na prática clínica, significa encontrar a humanidade que foi deixada para trás por aquele humano que se tornou um animal. O xamã, como terapeuta, assume o papel de interlocutor ativo na troca de subjetividades humanas e não humanas, em um processo de amplificação.

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A experiência com as plantas de poder permite o contato com outro tipo de sensibilidade daquela a que estamos acostumados no mundo ocidental. A situação ambiental do planeta se apresenta de modo imagético e emocional. A partir disso é feita uma aproximação com a psicologia analítica, a linguagem simbólica e o conhecimento dos indígenas da etnia yanomami. A possibilidade de extinção da vida na Terra tem sido uma preocupação que cresce dia a dia. Como evitá-la dentro das condições políticas e econômicas atuais ainda é um problema sem solução. Algumas propostas são apresentadas e cotejadas com o conhecimento indígena. A necessidade de compreender e assimilar esta sabedoria ancestral parece ser uma contribuição essencial para o encaminhamento de soluções.

The experience with plants of power enables contact with another type of sensibility than the one we are used to in the western world. The planet's environmental situation is presented in an imagery and emotional way. From this, an approximation is made with analytical psychology, symbolic language and the knowledge of the indigenous people of the Yanomami ethnic group. The possibility of extinction of life on Earth has been a growing concern. How to avoid it within current political and economic conditions is still a problem to be solved. Some proposals are presented and compared with indigenous knowledge. The need to understand and assimilate this ancestral wisdom seems to be an essential contribution to finding solutions.

Una experiencia con plantas de poder permite entrar en contacto con otro tipo de sensibilidad a la que estamos acostumbrados en el mundo occidental. La situación ambiental del planeta se presenta de modo imagético y emocional. A partir de eso se hace una aproximación con la psicología analítica, el lenguaje simbólico y el conocimiento de los Indígenas de la etnia Yanomami. Una posibilidad de extinción de la vida en la tierra ha sido una preocupación que crece día a día. Cómo evitarla dentro de las condiciones políticas y económicas actuales sigue siendo un problema sin solución. Algunas propuestas son presentadas y cotejadas con el conocimiento indígena. La necesidad de comprender y asimilar esta sabiduría ancestral parece ser una contribución esencial para el encaminamiento de soluciones.

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INTRODUÇÃO: O Xamanismo está presente na humanidade desde o período Paleolítico, muitos recursos do campo psicológico dialogam implícita ou explicitamente com esta tradição: a hipnose, o efeito placebo, a interpretação dos sonhos, técnicas meditativas de visualização, relaxamento e dramatização, a catarse e o manejo de sentido e simbolismo nas doenças e eventos da vida são exemplos. OBJETIVO: Reconhecer a presença do xamanismo e seus saberes afins à psicologia, visibilizando suas contribuições na atualidade. MÉTODO: Trata-se de um estudo teórico com base uma revisão bibliográfica narrativa. RESULTADOS: Procuramos reconhecer o xamanismo da psicologia partindo de uma crítica descolonial da história da psicologia e do xamanismo. Em seguida, destacamos algumas traduções epistemológicas que ajudam no reconhecimento do xamanismo na atualidade: a ideia de especialidade biológica; a noção de tecnologias do sagrado; bem como a incorporação da meditação e dos psicodélicos como inovação "psi". CONCLUSÃO: Apresentamos três importantes considerações: a validade do xamanismo pela ciência não deve ser baliza de seu mérito; a psicologia deve construir uma reflexividade ética para não atuar como colonizadora do xamanismo e, por fim, reconhecer o xamanismo da psicologia permite reconhecer o próprio campo no qual é agente.

INTRODUCTION: Shamanism has been present in humanity since the Paleolithic period. Many resources in the psychological field come from this tradition: hypnosis, the placebo effect, the interpretation of dreams, meditative techniques of visualization, relaxation and dramatization, catharsis, and the management of meaning and symbolism in diseases and life events are examples. OBJECTIVE: Recognize the presence of shamanism and its knowledge related to psychology, making its contributions and contributions visible today. METHOD: This is a theoretical study based on a narrative bibliographic review. RESULTS: We tried to recognize the shamanism of psychology based on a decolonial critique of the history of psychology and shamanism. Then, we highlight some epistemological translations that do not recognize shamanism today: the idea of biological specialty, a notion of technologies of the sacred, as well as the incorporation of meditation and psychedelics as a "psi" innovation. CONCLUSION: We present three important considerations: the validity of shamanism by science should not be a mark of merit; psychology must build ethical reflexivity in order not to act as a colonizer of shamanism; and, finally, recognizing the shamanism of psychology allows us to recognize the very field in which it is an agent.

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This paper examines bodily transformation and well-being within the context of a millenarian movement that emerged during the 1840s in the area surrounding Mount Roraima at the periphery of Brazil, Guyana (British Guiana at the time), and Venezuela. The site of this movement was Beckeranta - meaning 'Land of the Whites' - where up to 400 Amerindians were reportedly killed in a quest that is described in its sole historical account as centred around a goal of bodily transformation into white people. In examining this movement, the paper engages with longstanding debates in medical anthropology concerning the body, as well as conversations among Amazonianists concerning the social formation of bodies, and examines sorcery and shamanism as practices that go 'beyond the body'. Notions of bodily transformation in Amazonia, which are often activated by strong emotions, facilitate conceptual expansions of the body in medical anthropology. The paper suggests that bodily transformations tied to sorcery and shamanism are in some contexts, such as at Beckeranta, associated with desires for well-being.Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/13648470.2020.1807726.

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Introducción: Uno de los problemas que afecta los pueblos indígenas latinoamericanos es la falta de datos epidemiológicos respecto a la prevalencia del VIH-sida, debido a que los sistemas de información y vigilancia no registran la variable etnicidad. Objetivo: Proponer una política pública transcultural para prevenir factores asociados a la no adherencia a la terapia antirretroviral de gran actividad del VIH-Sida de la etnia Amazónica Kusu Pagata. Métodos: Estudio descriptivo, transversal, con 18 pobladores diagnosticados de VIH-sida en la comunidad Kusu Pagata, Perú. 2018-2019. Se aplicó cuestionario validado por expertos y confiabilidad alfa de Cronbach (0,71). La variable investigada fue factores asociados a la no adherencia a terapia antirretroviral, la propuesta fue una política pública basada en la Teoría de Madeleine Leininger. Se utilizaron estadísticas descriptivas (promedio, desviación estándar) e inferencial (prueba de comparación de promedios para varianzas homogéneas Shapiro-Wilk y prueba F para comparación de varianzas de 1 cola). Resultados: La edad promedio del paciente no adherente al tratamiento fue 21 años, significativamente mayor que la de los adherentes (18,2) años. El 80 por ciento de los que acudieron al curandero fueron no adherentes al tratamiento, el 50 por ciento fueron adherentes y acudieron al establecimiento sanitario. El 64 por ciento consumió tratamientos con productos elaborados con plantas, los que se consideraron no adherentes al tratamiento farmacológico, el 71 por ciento tomó otros tratamientos alternos. Conclusión: Se propuso una política pública transcultural según Teoría de Madeleine Leininger para prevenir factores asociados a la no adherencia a la terapia antirretroviral del VIH-sida de la etnia Amazónica Kusu Pagata(AU)

Introduction: One of the problems affecting Latin American indigenous peoples is the lack of epidemiological data regarding the prevalence of HIV-Aids, due to the fact that the information and surveillance systems do not register the ethnicity variable. Objective: To propose a cross-cultural public policy to prevent factors associated with non-adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy for HIV-Aids of the Amazon Kusu Pagata ethnic group. Methods: Descriptive, cross-sectional study with 18 residents diagnosed with HIV-Aids in the Kusu Pagata community, Peru. 2018-2019. An expertly validated questionnaire and Cronbach's alpha reliability (0.71) were applied. The variable investigated was factors associated with non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy; the proposal was a public policy based on the Theory of Madeleine Leininger. Descriptive (mean, standard deviation) and inferential statistics (means comparison test for homogeneous Shapiro - Wilk variances and F-test for comparison of 1-tail variances) were used. Results: The average age of the patient not adherent to the treatment was 21 years, significantly higher than that of the adherents (18.2) years. 80.00 percent of those who went to the healer were non-adherent to the treatment, 50.00 percent were adherent and went to the health facility. 64.00 percent consumed treatments with products made with plants, those who were considered non-adherent to the pharmacological treatment, 71.00 percent took other alternative treatments. Conclusion: A cross-cultural public policy was proposed according to Madeleine Leininger's Theory to prevent factors associated with non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy for HIV-AIDS of the Amazon Kusu Pagata ethnic group(AU)

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RESUMEN Objetivo Indagar acerca de las principales indicaciones, propiedades y formas de uso del chuchuhuasi referidas por un grupo de curanderos de Santa María de Huachipa (Lima-Perú). Existen antecedentes de estudios de los usos medicinales del chuchuhuasi (Maytenus macrocarpa) en comunidades nativas de la Amazonía, tanto por el poblador como por indicación del terapeuta tradicional; sin embargo, las referencias del uso y propiedad medicinal del chuchuhuasi en la costa, y en la comunidad urbana son escasas. Materiales y métodos Diez curanderos participaron de forma voluntaria. Se aplicó un cuestionario (mediante entrevista) que indagó acerca del uso del chuchuhuasi (propiedades, efectos adversos, contraindicaciones y formas farmacéuticas). La participación se registró con videograbaciones y luego se transcribió; posteriormente, los datos se categorizaron mediante pares y se definieron por consenso. Resultados Las principales indicaciones de consumo de chuchuhuasi fueron los problemas respiratorios (80,00 %) y osteotendinosos. Las propiedades antiinflamatorias y afrodisíacas fueron las más relevantes; y como efecto adverso se reportó el mareo. El producto estaba contraindicado en gestantes, hipertensos y diabéticos. Además, las principales formas farmacéuticas de consumo fueron el macerado, la pomada y la infusión. Conclusiones Se encontró la referencia del uso del chuchuhuasi en un grupo de curanderos del distrito de Santa María de Huachipa (Lima-Perú). La indicación más importante de su empleo son los problemas respiratorios y se destaca su propiedad antinflamatoria.

ABSTRACT Objective To inquire the main conditions, properties and ways of consumption of chuchuhuasi from a group of folk healers of the district of Santa María de Huachipa (Lima - Peru). There are studies of the medicinal uses of chuchuhuasi (Maytenus macrocarpa) in native communities of the Amazon known by the inhabitants and indicated by folk healers. However, information on the medicinal uses and properties of chuchuhuasi on the coast and in urban communities is rare. Materials and methods Ten folk healers voluntarily participated in the study. An interview questionnaire was administered to inquire the use of chuchuhuasi (properties, adverse effects, contraindications and ways of consumption). The interview was recorded and then transcribed. Afterwards, the data was categorized by peers and defined by consensus. Results: The main conditions for consuming chuchuhuasi were respiratory tract (80 %) and osteotendinous junction problems. The most important properties of chuchuhuasi were its anti-inflammatory and aphrodisiac effects. Dizziness was reported as adverse effect. Chuchuhuasi was contraindicated in pregnancy, hypertension and diabetes. In addition, its main ways of consumption were as spirit, ointment and infusion. Conclusions Information on the medicinal uses of chuchuhuasi was obtained from a group of folk healers of the district of Santa María de Huachipa (Lima - Peru). The main condition for consuming chuchuhuasi was respiratory tract problems, and its anti- inflammatory properties were highlighted.

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PURPOSE: A skeleton named Iuzu has been unearthed from an exceptional middle Holocene burial in Toca dos Coqueiros site, in Serra da Capivara National Park (UNESCO World Heritage Site, Piauí State, Brazil). During a bioarchaeological analysis of its remains, we discovered that Iuzu was suffering from rare vertebral malformations. A double foramen transversaria, the agenesis of a foramen on the atlas and the hypoplasia of the transverse process of the axis have been highlighted. We aimed to deduce the clinical consequences of the malformation on the patient's health. METHODS: We proceeded to macroscopic observation and radiography of the bones, then we search for other examples of such a pathology in archaeological litterature. RESULT: The malformation caused vascular insufficiency that may have led to neurological lesions leading to various pains and troubles. The very rare malformations Iuzu presented have not been found on a paleoindian skeleton from South America so far. CONCLUSION: This case allowed us to examine the conditions of selection of individuals buried in southern Piauí during the Middle Holocene, during which time this rite does not seem to predominate.

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The field of medical ethnobotany has historically contributed to the advancement of modern pharmaceutical and biomedical science through bringing discoveries from the field into the laboratory. In ethnopharmacology, a sub-field of ethnobotany, there is a concerning lack of ethnographic methods reported in the literature. The ethnographic approach is essential for detailing traditional methods of preparation and administration of plant medicines, yet pharmaceutical researchers overemphasize western epistemologies of medicinal discovery and production. In the present work, we propose an ethnopharmaceutical survey as a model to investigate the culturally recognized standards necessary for the formulation of herbal medicines. Fieldwork based on participant observation and semi-structured interviews examined the modes of preparation employed by traditional healers in the Amazonian region of San Martín, Peru. The authors draw on anthropological insight into plural epistemological encounters and propose an ethnopharmaceutical approach that takes seriously the Amazonian methods and perceptions for the preparation of traditional plant medicines.

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Over several millennia, various native plant species in South America have been used for their healing and psychoactive properties. Chemical analysis of archaeological artifacts provides an opportunity to study the use of psychoactive plants in the past and to better understand ancient botanical knowledge systems. Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to analyze organic residues from a ritual bundle, radiocarbon dated to approximately 1,000 C.E., recovered from archaeological excavations in a rock shelter located in the Lípez Altiplano of southwestern Bolivia. The site is located at an elevation of ∼3,900 m above sea level and contains evidence of intermittent human occupations during the last 4,000 years. Chemical traces of bufotenine, dimethyltryptamine, harmine, and cocaine, including its degradation product benzoylecgonine, were identified, suggesting that at least three plants containing these compounds were part of the shamanic paraphernalia dating back 1,000 years ago, the largest number of compounds recovered from a single artifact from this area of the world, to date. This is also a documented case of a ritual bundle containing both harmine and dimethyltryptamine, the two primary ingredients of ayahuasca. The presence of multiple plants that come from disparate and distant ecological areas in South America suggests that hallucinogenic plants moved across significant distances and that an intricate botanical knowledge was intrinsic to pre-Columbian ritual practices.

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RESUMEN El creciente interés de los occidentales por la bebida psicotrópica ayahuasca y la participacion en rituales exóticos ha llevado en las últimas décadas a la multiplicación de los "centros chamánicos" en la Amazonía peruana. Entre estos, el centro Takiwasi es una comunidad terapéutica que acoge cada año a cientos de clientes nacionales y extranjeros. Esta institución, creada por un médico francés en 1992, fue originalmente destinada a proponer una alternativa terapéutica para el tratamiento de la adicción, y se caracterizaba por el uso de ciertas herramientas del chamanismo mestizo peruano articuladas con la biomedicina y la psicología clínica. La evolución diacrónica de la institución está, sin embargo, marcada por la creciente utilización de elementos de la tradición católica. Examino aquí la hipótesis de que estas transformaciones pueden ser interpretadas como los efectos de la globalización del uso de la ayahuasca y sus consecuencias jurídicas y políticas. De este modo, el caso de Takiwasi subraya el papel jugado por las tradiciones religiosas y el campo médico en la construcción, la legitimación y el mantenimiento de las prácticas nuevas e híbridas que se multiplican alrededor del uso de la ayahuasca.

ABSTRACT In recent decades, the growing interest of Westerners in the psychotropic brew ayahuasca and the participation in exotic rituals has led to the multiplication of "shamanic centers" in the Peruvian Amazon. Among these, Takiwasi is a therapeutic community that welcomes hundreds of national and foreign clients every year. This institution, created by a French physician in 1992, was originally intended to propose a therapeutic alternative for the treatment of addiction, characterized by the use of tools of Peruvian mestizo shamanism, biomedicine and clinical psychology. The diachronic evolution of the institution is however marked by the growing use of elements of the Catholic tradition. In this article, I will examine the hypothesis that these transformations can be interpreted as the effects of the globalization of the use of ayahuasca and its legal and political consequences. Thus, the case of Takiwasi underlines the role played by religious traditions and the medical field in the construction, legitimization and maintenance of new and hybrid practices that are multiplying around the use of ayahuasca.

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RESUMEN A través de la historia de un chamán maya yucateco (h-men), este artículo analiza los cambios y las continuidades en el chamanismo yucateco y, más específicamente, en una de sus funciones principales: tsak, "curar". Los resultados presentados aquí son parte de un trabajo de campo de 40 años, de 1976 a 2016. El autor vive en una comunidad del centro de Yucatán (Tabi, Sotuta) y ha realizado varias investigaciones sobre el chamanismo yucateco en comunidades de los estados de Yucatán, Campeche y Quintana Roo. Juan Cob, h-men de Yaxcabá, no es solo un informante sino también vecino, amigo del autor con el cual realizó varias películas

ABSTRACT Through the history of a Yucatecan Mayan shaman (h-men), this article analyzes the changes and continuities in Yucatecan shamanism and, more specifically, in one of its main functions: tsak, healing. The results presented here are part of fieldwork carried out over 40 years, from 1976 to 2016. The author lives in a community in central Yucatán (Tabi, Sotuta) and has carried out a number of research studies on Yucatecan shamanism in communities in the Mexican states of Yucatán, Campeche and Quintana Roo. Juan Cob, h-men of Yaxcabá, is not only an informant but also the author's friend and neighbor, with whom he has created a number of films

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En el presente trabajo se considera la investigación multidisciplinaria sobre Salvia divinorum y sus principios químicos activos con el objeto de valorar si la etnobotánica, la fitoquímica, la psicofarmacología y la neurofarmacología de esta planta psicoactiva y su principal producto químico, la salvinorina A, clarifican sus efectos mentales y sus usos adivinatorios. Esta labor científica ha trascurrido desde el registro inicial de ceremonias y creencias, ha continuado con la identificación botánica, el aislamiento de los principios químicos, la caracterización de los efectos mentales y cerebrales, las posibles aplicaciones terapéuticas y ha llegado a incurrir en el problema mente-cuerpo. Dado que el punto de partida de esta investigación es la transdisciplina de la etnofarmacología, se retoman aquí las creencias tradicionales, los usos rituales y los efectos mentales de esta menta sagrada de los indios mazatecos tal y como fueron registrados durante un proyecto de campo y laboratorio llevado a cabo entre 1973 y 1983. Un brebaje acuoso de hojas maceradas produjo un breve periodo de ligereza cefálica, disforia, sensaciones táctiles y propioceptivas exacerbadas, un sentido de despersonalización, percepción amplificada de sonidos y un aumento de la imaginación visual y auditiva, pero no verdaderas alucinaciones. Posteriormente otros autores describieron efectos similares usando cuestionarios y eventualmente fueron imputados al diterpeno salvinorina-A, pero no es posible explicar los efectos mentales sólo por la potente actividad agonista del receptor kappa a los opioides encontrada para la salvinorina; de allí el enigma psicofarmacológico. Se proponen algunos requerimientos para una clasificación de drogas que alteran cualitativamente el estado de conciencia e incluyen la activación de redes neuronales que necesariamente comprenden diversos sistemas neuroquímicos y módulos nerviosos. Para caracterizar estas redes será necesario emprender un tipo de investigación top-down, es decir el análisis de imágenes cerebrales obtenidas durante la experiencia psicoactiva analizada mediante un método narrativo, lo cual eventualmente podría permitir la exploración de efectos étnicos diferenciales. Como sucede con otras preparaciones que alteran la conciencia, una investigación rigurosa de la psicofarmacología de esta planta y su principio psicoactivo será relevante a empresas académicas tan diversas como el problema mente-cuerpo, la mejor comprensión del éxtasis chamánico y la posible generación de fármacos analgésicos, antidepresivos y moderadores de la drogadicción.

In the present paper, the multidisciplinary research on Salvia divinorum and its chemical principles is analyzed regarding whether the ethnobotany, phytochemistry, psychopharmacology, and neuropharmacology of this sacred psychoactive plant and main principle clarify its experienced effects and divinatory uses. The scientific endeavor traverses from the recorded traditional ceremonies and beliefs, continues with the botanical identification, the isolation of active molecules, the characterization of mental and neural effects, the possible therapeutic applications, and impinges upon the mind-body problem. The departure point of this search is ethnopharmacology, and therefore the traditional beliefs, ritual uses, and mental effects of this Mazatec sacred mint recorded during a 1973-1983 field research project are described. A water potion of crushed leaves produced short-lasting light-headedness, dysphoria, tactile and proprioceptive sensations, a sense of depersonalization, amplified sound perception, and increased visual and auditory imagery, but no actual hallucinations. Similar effects were described using questionnaires and are attributable to the diteprene salvinorin A, but cannot be explained solely by its specific and potent brain kappa-opioid receptor agonist activity. Some requirements for a feasible classification and mechanism of action of consciousness-altering products are proposed and include the activation of neural networks comprising several neurochemical systems. Top-down analyses should be undertaken in order to characterize such neural networks and eventually allowing to explore the differential ethnic effects. As is the case for other consciousness-altering preparations, a careful and encompassing research on this plant and principle can be consequential to academic undertakings ranging from the mind-body problem and a better understanding of shamanic ecstasy, to the potential generation of analgesic, antidepressant, and drug-abuse attenuating products.

RESUMO

CONTEXTO: o autor descreve os xamãs como curadores que deliberadamente modificam seu padrão fenomenológico de atenção, percepção, cognição e consciência para obter informações não disponíveis ordinariamente aos membros do grupo social que lhes concedeu status privilegiado. OBJETIVOS: descrever como estas alterações fenomenológicas foram alcançadas e utilizadas. MÉTODOS: foram utilizados estudos da literatura xamânica em arquivo e pesquisas de campo em comunidades onde xamãs estão atuando ativamente. RESULTADOS: a fonte das informações obtidas pelos xamãs é atribuída a forças e entidades desencarnadas, como espíritos, ancestrais, guias animais e campos energéticos. Essas fontes foram contatadas através de toques ritualizados de tambores, danças, sonhos lúcidos, uso de plantas psicotrópicas, atenção focalizada e outros recursos. Este estudo foi importante, pois mostrou que os xamãs utilizam as informações obtidas para atender às necessidades sociais, psicológicas e médicas de suas comunidades. CONCLUSÕES: o disseminado aparecimento dos xamãs, especialmente em tribos caçadoras e coletoras, indica que suas presenças possuem funções adaptativas em um grupo social. Além disso, estes dados podem trazer importantes contribuições para a neurociência cognitiva, psicologia social, psicoterapia e psicologia ecológica.

BACKGROUND: the author describes shamans as practitioners who deliberately shift their phenomenological pattern of attention, perception, cognition, and awareness in order to obtain information not ordinarily available to members of the social group that granted them privileged status. OBJECTIVES: to describe how these phenomenological shifts were accomplished and used. METHODS: archival studies of shamanic literature as well as field research in communities where shamans are actively functioning. RESULTS: the source of shaman-derived information is attributed to such discarnate entities and forces as spirits, ancestors, animal guides, and energetic fields. These agencies were contacted through ritualized drumming, dancing, lucid dreaming, the use of psychotropic plants, focused attention, and other technologies. This study was important because it determined that shamans utilize the obtained information to attend to their communitys social, psychological, and medical needs. CONCLUSIONS: the ubiquitous appearance of shamans, especially in hunting and gathering tribes, indicates that their presence in a social group served adaptive functions. Further, these data can make important contributions to cognitive neuroscience, social psychology, psychotherapy, and ecological psychology.

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