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This study investigates the valorization potential of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) tails to produce high-value commercial products. Firstly, the tuna tails were placed in a perforated stainless-steel cylinder, and hydraulic pressure was applied to separate the skin from the muscle in the tails. The extracted muscle was then utilized as a nitrogen source for the growth of the proteolytic enzyme producer Bacillus subtilis, while the skins were employed for gelatin extraction. The proteases from B. subtilis were partially purified and used to produce antioxidant peptides from the obtained gelatin. The gelatin formed a gel upon cooling, with gelling and melting temperatures of 16 °C and 22 °C, respectively, and a Bloom strength of approximately 160. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was employed to determine the optimal hydrolysis conditions to achieve the highest antioxidant activity (35.96% measured as DPPH radical scavenging activity), which were 50 °C and 6.5 IU of enzyme. The findings emphasize the importance of an integrated approach to maximize the value of tuna by-products, promoting sustainability within the framework of a circular bioeconomy. Overall, these results contribute to the efficient utilization of tuna by-products, waste reduction, and enhanced economic viability of the tuna industry.

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Serine peptidases and metallopeptidases are the primary toxins found in Bothrops snakes venoms, which act on proteins in the tissues of victims or prey, and release of peptides formed through proteolytic activity. Various studies have indicated that these peptides, released by the proteolytic activity of heterologous enzymes, generate molecules with unidentified functions, referred to as cryptids. To address this, we purified serine peptidases from Bothrops jararaca venom using molecular exclusion chromatography and then incubated them with the endogenous substrate myoglobin. As a control, we also incubated the substrate with trypsin. The resulting proteolytic fragments were analyzed, separated, and collected via HPLC. These fractions were then tested on cell cultures, the active fractions were sequenced (ALELFR and TGHPETLEK) and synthesized. After confirming their activity, the peptides underwent sequencing and synthesis for additional cell tests, including the increase of cell viability, cycle phases, proliferation, signaling, growth kinetics, angiogenesis, and migration. The results revealed that the synthesized peptides exhibited cellular repair properties, suggesting a potential role in tissue repair in the range of 0.05-5 µ M. Additionally, the effects of fragments resulting from myoglobin degradation isolated (ALELFR and TGHPETLEK) revealed a regenerative action on tissue.

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BACKGROUND: Ganoderma spp. are a great source of bioactive molecules. The production and recovery of bioactive molecules vary according to strain, growth substrate, and extraction solution. Variations in protease and their inhibitors in basidiomata from a commercial strain (G. lingzhi) and an Amazonian isolate (Ganoderma sp.) cultivated in Amazonian lignocellulosic wastes and extracted with different solutions are plausible and were investigated in our study. METHODS: Basidiomata from cultivation in substrates based on açaí seed, guaruba-cedro sawdust and three lots of marupá sawdust were submitted to extraction in water, Tris-HCl, and sodium phosphate. Protein content, proteases, and protease inhibitors were estimated through different assays. The samples were characterized by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR). RESULTS: Tris-HCl provided higher protein extraction from Ganoderma sp. and higher caseinolytic, gelatinolytic, and fibrinolytic activity for G. lingzhi cultivated in açaí. Water extracts of Ganoderma sp., in general, exhibited higher trypsin and papain inhibitor activities compared to G. lingzhi. Extracts in Tris-HCl and sodium phosphate showed more intense protein bands in SDS-- PAGE, highlighting bands of molecular weights around 100, 50, and 30 kDa. FTIR spectra showed patterns for proteins in all extracts, with variation in transmittance according to substrate and extractor. CONCLUSION: Water extract from Amazonian Ganoderma sp. cultivated in marupá wastes are promising as a source of protease inhibitors, while the Tris-HCL extract of G. lingzhi from açaí cultivation stands out as a source of proteases with fibrinolytic, caseinolytic, and gelatinolytic activities.

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The present study aims at understanding the effect of organic solvents on the specific proteolytic activity and operational stability of asclepain cI in aqueous-organic media, using correlations between geometrical and structural parameters of asclepain cI. These correlations were determined by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and the secondary structure of the enzyme validated by Fourier-transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Asclepain cI exhibited significantly higher catalytic potential in 29 of the 42 aqueous-organic media tested, composed by 0.1 mM TRIS hydrochloride buffer pH 8 (TCB) and an organic solvent, than in buffer alone. Asclepain cI in water-organic miscible systems showed high FTIR spectral similarity with that obtained in TCB, while in immiscible systems the enzyme acquired different secondary structures than in buffer. Among the conditions studied, asclepain cI showed the highest catalytic potential in 50% v/v ethyl acetate in TCB. According to MD simulations, that medium elicited solvation and flexibility changes around the active center of asclepain cI and conducted to a new secondary structure with the active center preserved. These results provide valuable insights into the elucidation of the molecular mechanism of asclepain cI tolerance to organic solvents and pave the way for its future application for the synthesis of peptides in aqueous-organic media.

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Abstract: Background: Metastatic melanoma stands out as the most lethal form of skin cancer because of its high propensity to spread and its remarkable resistance to treatment methods. Methods: In this review article, we address the incidence of melanoma worldwide and its staging phases. We thoroughly investigate the different melanomas and their associated risk factors. In addition, we underscore the principal therapeutic goals and pharmacological methods that are currently used in the treatment of melanoma. Results: The implementation of targeted therapies has contributed to improving the approach to patients. However, because of the emergence of resistance early in treatment, overall survival and progression-free periods continue to be limited. Conclusions: We provide new insights into plant serine protease inhibitor therapeutics, supporting high-throughput drug screening soon, and seeking a complementary approach to explain crucial mechanisms associated with melanoma.

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Serine peptidases and metallopeptidases are the primary toxins found in Bothrops snakes venoms, which act on proteins in the tissues of victims or prey, and release of peptides formed through proteolytic activity. Various studies have indicated that these peptides, released by the proteolytic activity of heterologous enzymes, generate molecules with unidentified functions, referred to as cryptids. To address this, we purified serine peptidases from Bothrops jararaca venom using molecular exclusion chromatography and then incubated them with the endogenous substrate myoglobin. As a control, we also incubated the substrate with trypsin. The resulting proteolytic fragments were analyzed, separated, and collected via HPLC. These fractions were then tested on cell cultures, the active fractions were sequenced (ALELFR and TGHPETLEK) and synthesized. After confirming their activity, the peptides underwent sequencing and synthesis for additional cell tests, including the increase of cell viability, cycle phases, proliferation, signaling, growth kinetics, angiogenesis, and migration. The results revealed that the synthesized peptides exhibited cellular repair properties, suggesting a potential role in tissue repair in the range of 0.05–5 μ M. Additionally, the effects of fragments resulting from myoglobin degradation isolated (ALELFR and TGHPETLEK) revealed a regenerative action on tissue.

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This study presents an approach that utilizes low-value agro-industrial by-products as culture media for producing high-value proteolytic enzymes. The objective was to assess the impact of six agro-industrial by-products as culture media on the production of proteolytic enzymes. Bacillus subtilis strains, confirmed through comprehensive biochemical, morphological, and molecular analyses, were isolated and identified. Enzymatic activity was evaluated using azocasein and casein substrates, and the molecular sizes of the purified extract components were determined. The results demonstrated that the isolated bacteria exhibited higher metabolic and enzymatic activity when cultured in media containing 1 % soybean oil cake or feather meal. Furthermore, higher concentrations of the culture media were found to hinder the production of protease. Optimal protease synthesis on soybean oil cake and feather meal media was achieved after 4 days, using both the azocasein and casein methods. Semi-purification of the enzymatic extract obtained from Bacillus subtilis in feather meal and soybean oil cake resulted in a significant increase in azocaseinolytic and caseinolytic activities. Gel electrophoresis analysis revealed multiple bands in the fractions with the highest enzymatic activity in soybean oil cake, indicating the presence of various enzymes with varying molecular sizes. These findings highlight the potential of utilizing low-value agro-industrial by-products as efficient culture media for the sustainable and economically viable production of proteolytic enzymes with promising applications in various industries.

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INTRODUCTION: Cancer is a disease of (altered) biological pathways, often driven by somatic mutations and with several implications. Therefore, the identification of potential markers of disease is challenging. Given the large amount of biological data generated with omics approaches, oncology has experienced significant contributions. Proteomics mapping of protein fragments, derived from proteolytic processing events during oncogenesis, may shed light on (i) the role of active proteases and (ii) the functional implications of processed substrates in biological signaling circuits. Both outcomes have the potential for predicting diagnosis/prognosis in diseases like cancer. Therefore, understanding proteolytic processing events and their downstream implications may contribute to advances in the understanding of tumor biology and targeted therapies in precision medicine. AREAS COVERED: Proteolytic events associated with some hallmarks of cancer (cell migration and proliferation, angiogenesis, metastasis, as well as extracellular matrix degradation) will be discussed. Moreover, biomarker discovery and the use of proteomics approaches to uncover proteolytic signaling events will also be covered. EXPERT OPINION: Proteolytic processing is an irreversible protein post-translational modification and the deconvolution of biological data resulting from the study of proteolytic signaling events may be used in both patient diagnosis/prognosis and targeted therapies in cancer.

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To corroborate the ontogenetic shift in the venom composition of the Mexican Black-tailed Rattlesnake (Crotalus molossus nigrescens) previously reported through the census approach, we evaluated the shift in the protein profile, lethality, and proteolytic and phospholipase activities of four venom samples obtained in 2015, 2018, 2019, and 2021 from one C. m. nigrescens individual (CMN06) collected in Durango, Mexico. We demonstrated that the venom of C. m. nigrescens changed from a myotoxin-rich venom to a phospholipase A2 and snake venom metalloproteinase-rich venom. Additionally, the proteolytic and phospholipase activities increased with age, but the lethality decreased approximately three times.

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The dimeric peptide 26[F]: (RRWQWRFKKLG)2-K-Ahx has exhibited a potent cytotoxic effect against breast cancer cell lines, with position 26 (F) being the most relevant for anti-cancer activity. In this investigation, six analogues of the 26[F] peptide were synthesized in which the 26th position was replaced by non-natural hydrophobic amino acids, finding that some modifications increased the resistance to proteolytic degradation exerted by trypsin or pepsin. Additionally, these modifications increased the cytotoxic effect against breast cancer cells and generated cell death mediated by apoptosis pathways, activating caspases 8 and 9, and did not compromise the integrity of the cytoplasmic membrane. Finally, it was found that the modified peptides have a broad spectrum of action, since they also have a cytotoxic effect against the HeLa human cervical cancer cell line. Peptide 26[F] was inoculated in mice by ip administration and the lethal dose 50 (LD50) was between 70 and 140 mg kg-1. While for the 26[1-Nal]: (RRWQWR-1-Nal-KKLG)2-K-Ahx peptide, a dose-response test was performed, and the survival rate was 100%. These results suggested that these peptides are safe in this animal model and could be considered as promissory to develop a treatment against breast cancer.

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Fusarium is a genus of ubiquitous fungi that comprises mycotoxigenic animal and plant pathogens. These fungi have the ability to exploit a wide range of substrates and hosts, indicating their great potential for enzyme production; however, this aspect is understudied. Therefore, the present study aimed for revaluating the identity of twenty-three Fusarium strains maintained in the University Recife Mycology (URM) culture collection, Brazil, and to evaluate their potential for proteases production and the milk-clotting activity of these proteases. According to phylogenetic analysis of translation elongation factor 1-alpha (TEF1) gene partial sequences, these strains belonged to 12 species representing four species complexes: Fusarium concolor, F. fujikuroi, F. incarnatum-equiseti, and F. oxysporum. Four of these species are putatively novel to science. Notably, novel associations of Fusarium spp. with certain hosts/substrates were documented. The proteolytic activity ranged from 1.67 U ml-1 to 22.03 U ml-1 among the evaluated fungal isolates, with specific proteolytic activity reaching 205.86 U mg-1. The values for coagulant activity and specific activity were up to 157.14 U ml-1 and 1,424.11 U mg-1, respectively. These results indicate the potential of URM Fusarium strains as a source for the production of enzymes of industrial interest. Additionally, they reinforce the importance of applying DNA-based methods for reviewing the identification of fungal strains preserved in biodiversity repositories.

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BACKGROUND: In recent years, the rising global demand for cheese, the high cost and limited supply of calf rennet, and consumer choices have increased research into new alternatives to animal or recombinant chymosins for cheese making. Plant proteases with caseinolytic activity (CA) and milk-clotting activity (MCA) have been proposed as alternatives for milk clotting to obtain artisanal cheeses with new organoleptic properties. They have been named vegetable rennets (vrennets). The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of two Solanum tuberosum aspartic proteases (StAP1 and StAP3) as vrennets for cheese making and to obtain a statistical model that could predict and optimize their enzymatic activity. RESULTS: To optimize the CA and MCA activities, a response surface methodology was used. Maximum values of CA and MCA for both enzymes were found at pH 5.0 and 30-35 °C. Analysis of the degradation of casein subunits showed that it is possible to tune the specificity of both enzymes by changing the pH. At pH 6.5, the αS - and ß- subunit degradation is reduced while conserving a significant MCA. CONCLUSION: The statistical models obtained in this work showed that StAP1 and StAP3 exert CA and MCA under pH and temperature conditions compatible with those used for cheese making. The casein subunit degradation percentages obtained also allowed us to select the best conditions for the degradation of the κ-casein subunit by StAPs. These results suggest that StAP1 and StAP3 are good candidates as vrennets for artisan cheese making. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

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Trichomonas vaginalis is responsible for 156 million new cases per year worldwide. When present asymptomatically, the parasite can lead to serious complications, such as development of cervical and prostate cancer. As infection increases the acquisition and transmission of HIV, the control of trichomoniasis represents an important niche for the discovery and development of new antiparasitic molecules. This urogenital parasite synthesizes several molecules that allow the establishment and pathogenesis of infection. Among them, peptidases occupy key roles as virulence factors, and the inhibition of these enzymes has become an important mechanism for modulating pathogenesis. Based on these premises, our group recently reported the potent anti-T. vaginalis action of the metal-based complex [Cu(phendione)3](ClO4)2.4H2O (Cu-phendione). In the present study, we evaluated the influence of Cu-phendione on the modulation of proteolytic activities produced by T. vaginalis by biochemical and molecular approaches. Cu-phendione showed strong inhibitory potential against T. vaginalis peptidases, especially cysteine- and metallo-type peptidases. The latter revealed a more prominent effect at both the post-transcriptional and post-translational levels. Molecular Docking analysis confirmed the interaction of Cu-phendione, with high binding energy (-9.7 and -10.7 kcal·mol-1, respectively) at the active site of both TvMP50 and TvGP63 metallopeptidases. In addition, Cu-phendione significantly reduced trophozoite-mediated cytolysis in human vaginal (HMVII) and monkey kidney (VERO) epithelial cell lineages. These results highlight the antiparasitic potential of Cu-phendione by interaction with important T. vaginalis virulence factors.

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In this study, bovine meat loaves were produced with different levels of papain (0.00125%, 0.0025%, 0.00375%, and 0.005%) combined with transglutaminase (1%). The effect of this reformulation on pH, instrumental color, water activity, proximate composition, texture, yield, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of meat loaves was investigated. In addition, the enzymatic activity of papain was also analyzed. The papain addition increased the pH and the yield of the samples. The hardness was progressively reduced with the increase of papain level. Such changes could be seen through the images recorded by SEM, where an extremely fragmented structure was observed in treatments with higher papain concentration. Papain showed an optimum temperature of 80 °C. This study allowed to observe an intense proteolytic effect in all treatments, despite the papain concentration. Therefore, lower levels should be applied so that the product does not alter its sensory characteristics, such as soft and crumbly texture.

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Bacillus sp. CL14 crude protease was partially characterized and applied to obtain antioxidant whey protein isolate (WPI) hydrolysates. Optimal activity occurred at pH 9.0 and 60 °C. Ca2+, Mg2+, and Mn2+ (5 mM) enhanced activity (12-26%), whereas Co2+, Cu2+, Fe2+, and Zn2+ inhibited it (50-94%). At 1% (v/v), Tween 20 and Triton X-100 enhanced activities (21-27%), ß-mercaptoethanol decreased it (15%), and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) had no effect. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS; 0.1%, w/v) increased activity by 36%. Complete inhibition by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), and 85% inhibition by ethylenediaminotetraacetic acid, indicates its serine protease character and the importance of cations for activity/stability. With 5 mM Ca2+, protease was optimally active at 65 °C and completely stable after 20 min at 40-55 °C. Crude protease preferentially hydrolyzed WPI and soy protein, followed by casein. WPI hydrolysis was then performed (55 °C, pH 9.0, 5 mM Ca2+) for 0-180 min. Contents of trichloroacetic acid (TCA)-soluble proteins in WPI hydrolysates (HWPI) increased from 29% (0 min) to 50-52% (60-180 min), accompanied by enhanced radical scavenging activity (14%, 0 min; ∼34%, 60-180 min) and Fe2+-chelating ability (56%, 0 min; ∼74%, 45-180 min). CL14 protease might represent an alternative biocatalyst to obtain antioxidant hydrolysates from WPI and, potentially, from other food proteins.

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Actinomycetes are versatile about their metabolism, displaying high capacity to produce bioactive metabolites. Enzymes from actinomycetes represent new opportunities for industrial applications. However, proteases from actinomycetes are poorly described by literature. Thereby, to verify proteolytic potential of actinomycetes, the present study aimed the investigation of bacterial isolates from Caatinga and Atlantic Forest rhizosphere. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) peptide libraries were adopted for the evaluations, since they are faster and more qualitative methods, if compared with others described by most reports. A total of 52 microorganisms were inoculated in different culture media (PMB, potato dextrose agar, brain heart infusion agar, Starch Casein Agar and Reasoner's 2A agar), temperatures (12, 20, 30, 37, 45 and 60°C), and saline conditions (0-4 M NaCl), during 7 days. The actinomycetes named as AC 01, 02 and 52 were selected and showed enzymatic abilities under the peptide probes Abz-KLRSSKQ-EDDnp and Abz-KLYSSKQ-EDDnp, achieving enhanced performance at 30 °C. Biochemical parameters were established, showing a predominance of alkaline proteases with activity under saline conditions. Secreted proteases hydrolysed preferentially polar uncharged residues (Y and N) and positively charged groups (R). Phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid inhibited the proteins, a characteristic of serine (AC 01 e 02) and metalloproteases (AC 52). All selected strains belonged to Streptomyces genera. In summary, actinomycete strains with halophilic proteolytic abilities were selected, which improve possibilities for their use in detergent formulations, food processing, waste management and industrial bioconversion. It is important to highlight that this is the first report using FRET libraries for proteolytic screening from Caatinga and Atlantic Forest actinobacteria.

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Microbial proteases, especially aspartic proteases, are an essential group of enzymes produced from different microorganisms. Microbial proteases have several applications, mainly in the food, beverage, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries, due to their efficiency in the processing and in the manufacturing stages. The yeast Rhodotorula mucilaginosa CBMAI 1528 was isolated from the Antarctic environment and was previously reported to have higher extracellular aspartic protease production. In addition, advances in the operational conditions of bioreactors for enzyme production are important to reduce the gap associated with scaling-up processes. This is the first study that evaluates the influence of oxygen transference (kLa) on the protease production of R. mucilaginosa yeast. To that end, batch cultures were created in a stirred tank bioreactor using Sabouraud dextrose broth at 25 °C for 72 h under kLa values from 18 to 135 h-1. The results show that kLa (121 h-1) obtained at 500 rpm and 1.5 vvm plays an important role in protease production (124.9 U/mL) and productivity (6.784 U/L.h) as well as biomass (10.4 g/L), µmax (0.14 h-1) and Yx/s (0.484 g/g). In conclusion, R. mucilaginosa showed high yield production in aerobic culture with the efficiency of protease expression and secretion influenced by kLa. In this sense, our results could be used for further industrial investment.

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Extracellular proteolytic enzymes are produced by a variety of pathogenic microorganisms, and contribute to host colonization by modulating virulence. Here, we present a first characterization of leptolysin, a Leptospira metalloprotease of the pappalysin family identified in a previous exoproteomic study. Comparative molecular analysis of leptolysin with two other pappalysins from prokaryotes, ulilysin and mirolysin, reveals similarities regarding calcium, zinc, and arginine -binding sites conservation within the catalytic domain, but also discloses peculiarities. Variations observed in the primary and tertiary structures may reflect differences in primary specificities. Purified recombinant leptolysin of L. interrogans was obtained as a ~50 kDa protein. The protease exhibited maximal activity at pH 8.0 and 37°C, and hydrolytic activity was observed in the presence of different salts with maximum efficiency in NaCl. Substrate specificity was assessed using a small number of FRET peptides, and showed a marked preference for arginine residues at the P1 position. L. interrogans leptolysin proteolytic activity on proteinaceous substrates such as proteoglycans and plasma fibronectin was also evaluated. All proteins tested were efficiently degraded over time, confirming the protease´s broad-spectrum activity in vitro. In addition, leptolysin induced morphological alterations on HK-2 cells, which may be partially attributed to extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation. Hemorrhagic foci were observed in the dorsal skin of mice intradermally injected with leptolysin, as a plausible consequence of ECM disarray and vascular endothelium glycocalyx damage. Assuming that leptospiral proteases play an important role in all stages of the infectious process, characterizing their functional properties, substrates and mechanisms of action is of great importance for therapeutic purposes.

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Extreme halophilic archaea (haloarchaea) have adapted their physiology and biomolecules to thrive in saline environments (>2 M NaCl). Many haloarchaea produce extracellular hydrolases (including proteases) with potential biotechnological applications, which require unusual high salt concentrations to attain their function and maintain their stability. These conditions restrict many of the standard methods used to study these enzymes such as activity determination and/or protein purification. Here, we describe basic protocols to detect and measure extracellular proteolytic activity in haloarchaea including casein hydrolysis on agar plates, quantitative proteolytic activity determination by the azocasein assay and gelatin zymography in presence of the compatible solute glycine-betaine.

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Helicobacter pylori is a Gram negative bacterium most frequently associated with human gastrointestinal infections worldwide. The increasing occurrence of antibiotic-resistant isolates of H. pylori constitutes a challenge. The eradication of the microorganism is currently being considered a "high priority" by the World Health Organization (WHO). In this context, bioactive compounds found in natural products seem to be an effective therapeutic option to develop new antibiotics against the pathogen. In this study, we investigated the effect of asclepain cI, the main purified proteolytic enzyme of the latex of petioles and stems from Asclepia curassavica L. (Asclepiadaceae), a South American native plant, against H. pylori; in order to obtain a natural therapeutic adjuvant and a safe nutraceutical product. Asclepain cI showed antibacterial activity against reference strains and drug-resistant clinical isolates of H. pylori in vitro. A range of minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) from 1 to 2 µg/ml and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) from 2 to 4 µg/ml was obtained, respectively. The action of asclepain cI on the transcription of omp18, ureA, flaA genes showed a significantly decreased expression of the selected pathogenic factors. Furthermore, asclepain cI did not induce toxic effects at the concentrations assayed. Asclepain cI could be considered a highly feasible option to be used as a natural therapeutic adjuvant and a safe nutraceutical product against H. pylori.