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This paper presents an application for a molybdenum disulfide nanomaterial with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MoS2@MWCNT/E) in a modified electrode substrate for the detection of uric acid (UA). The modified electrode generates a substantial three-fold increase in the anodic peak current for UA compared to the unmodified MWCNT electrode (MWCNT/E). The MoS2@MWCNT/E surface was characterized by cyclic voltammetry (CV), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The achieved detection limit stood at 0.04 µmol/L, with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 2.0% (n = 10). The method's accuracy, assessed through relative error and percent recovery, was validated using a urine standard solution spiked with known quantities of UA.

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Antibiotics belongs to a class of pharmaceutical compounds widely used due to their effectiveness against bacterial infections. However, if consumed or inappropriately disposed of in the environment can results in environmental and public health problems, because they are considered emerging contaminants and their residues represent damage, whether in the long or short term, to different terrestrial ecosystems, in addition to bringing potential risks to agricultural sectors, such as livestock and fish farming. For this, the development of analytical methods for low-concentration detection and identification of antibiotics in natural waters, wastewaters, soil, foods, and biological fluids is necessary. This review shows the applicability of square wave voltammetry for the analytical determination of antibiotics from different chemical classes and covers a variety of samples and working electrodes that are used as voltammetric sensors. The review involved the analysis of scientific publications from the Science Direct® and Scopus® databases, with scientific manuscripts covering the period between January 2012 and May 2023. Various manuscripts were discussed indicating the applicability of square wave voltammetry in antibiotics detection in urine, blood, natural waters, milk, among other complex samples.

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The sensing of food contaminants is essential to prevent their adverse health effects on the consumers. Electrochemical sensors are promising in the determination of electroactive analytes including food pollutants, biomolecules etc. Graphene nanomaterials offer many benefits as electrode material in a sensing device. To further improve the analytical performance, doped graphene or derivatives of graphene such as reduced graphene oxide and their nanocomposites were explored as electrode materials. Herein, the advancements in graphene and its derivatives-based electrochemical sensors for analysis of food pollutants were summarized. Determinations of both organic (food colourants, pesticides, drugs, etc.) and inorganic pollutants (metal cations and anions) were considered. The influencing factors including nature of electrode materials and food pollutants, pH, electroactive surface area etc., on the sensing performances of modified electrodes were highlighted. The results of pollutant detection in food samples by the graphene-based electrode have also been outlined. Lastly, conclusions and current challenges in effective real sample detection were presented.

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In this work, a new electrochemical biosensor was developed using peptides selected by Phage Display as biorecognition phase to Breast Cancer (BC) characterization. Phage clones were selected against MCF-7 (ER-positive BC) proteins, in order to characterize patients with aggressive luminal BC. Biotin-C3 and biotin-H2 peptides were chemically synthesized and validated by flow cytometry, immunofluorescence assays, and ELISA assays, being more reactive to the MCF-7 lineage. Furthermore, a new matrix for the coupling of biomolecules on the surface of graphite electrodes was generated, through electrochemical modification with a new material derived from 3-(3-aminophenyl)propionic acid (3-3-APPA). Electrochemical and morphological characterizations were carried out, and the mechanism of electropolymerization of poly(3-3-APPA) was proposed, in which the carboxylate groups are kept in the structure of the formed polymer. Then, a biosensor was developed by immobilizing the biotin-C3 and biotin-H2 peptides in the SPE/poly(3-3-APPA)/avidin system for the detection of BC tumor markers in serological samples. Finally, peptides were validated using samples from patients with BC and Benign Breast Disease. Biotin-C3 peptide characterized luminal BC according to p53 status and to HER2 expression, being the biosensor a better strategy when compared to ELISA test. This new biosensor will open a new perspective for a rapid and electrochemical platform for the characterization of BC and its molecular subtypes.

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The evaluation of glassy carbon (GC) electrodes modified with a Nafion (Nf) film and doped with nanoalloys (Nys) deposits of Ag-Hg and Ag-Bi and their application to determination of Cd (II) and Pb(II) in marine sediments, is described. Deposited Ag-Hg and AgBi Nys have a size of approximately ~80 nm dispersed and embedded inside the booths of the Nf net, while other of them remained on Nf net surface. For the AgBiNysNf-GC electrode, a detection limit (DL), 3 s criterion, slightly higher than for the AgHgNysNf-GC modified electrode was obtained. Accuracy of measurements was asserted by comparison with quantification of Cd and Pb in three sets of marine sediments samples previously analyzed by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The values of the standard deviation and the coefficients of variation are very low, and also comparable between the different determinations.

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RESUMO Um processo eletroanalítico da detecção quantitativa dos íons de zinco bivalente sobre as novas bases de Schiff no modo galvanostático tem sido simulado teoricamente. O respectivo modelo matemático tem sido desenvolvido e analisado mediante a teoria de estabilidade linear e da análise de bifurcações. Foi estabelecido que o sistema é eficiente tanto do ponto de vista eletroanalítico, como do ponto de vista eletrossintético, por ser facilmente estabilizado o estado estacionário. Todavia, o comportamento oscilatorio, neste sistema é mais provável que no caso clássico do desempenho de sensores, baseados em polímeros condutores e outros materiais orgânicos, por haver influências na dupla camada elétrica, causadas pela reação química da formação de complexo.

SUMMARY An electroanalytical process of the quantitative determination of bivalent zinc ions over the novel Schiff bases in galvanostatic mode has been theoretically simulated. The correspondent mathematical model has been developed and analyzed by means of linear stability theory and bifurcation analysis. It was shown that the system is efficient from both electroanalytical and electrosynthetical points of view, as the steady-state is easily stabilized. Nevertheless, the oscillatory behavior in this system is more probable than in the classic case of the sensors, based on conducting polymers and other organic materials, as there are double electric layer influences, caused by complex formation.

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RESUMEN La posibilidad de usar el oxihidróxido del cobalto en la detección electroquímica de la gabapentina ha sido evaluada, y se sugirió un mecanismo del desempeño del analito y del modificador. Este fue desarrollado y analizado (mediante la teoría de estabilidad lineal y análisis de bifurcaciones) un modelo matemático basado en este mecanismo. La evaluación teórica confirma que el oxihidróxido de cobalto puede ser un modificador eficiente para la detección de la gabapentina, a pesar de la hibridez de su mecanismo de oxidación. La posibilidad y las causas de los comportamientos oscilatorio y monotónico también han sido investigadas.

SUMMARY The possibility for the use of cobalt (III) oxyhydroxide in gabapentine electrochemical determination has been evaluated. A mechanism for analyte and modifier function has been suggested. A mathematical model based in this mechanism has been developed and analyzed (by means of linear stability theory and bifurcation analysis). The theoretical evaluation confirms that the cobalt (III) oxyhydroxide may be an efficient modifier for gabapentine electrochemical determination, despite of the hybridity of its oxidation mechanism. The possibility and the causes for oscillatory and monotonic instabilities have also been investigated.

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RESUMO O processo da determinação eletroanalítica do fármaco letrozol, assistida pelo compósito VO(OH)-polipirrol, obtido mediante um processo catódico, foi descrito teoricamente. Tanto para a síntese do compósito, como para o processo eletroana-lítico foi sugerido e analisado, mediante a teoria de estabilidade linear e análise de bifurcações, um modelo matemático. Foi mostrado que, ao contrário da eletrossín-tese de polipirrol catódica, iniciada por um composto na solução, o polipirrol resultante tem uma morfologia mais "centrada" aos centros ativos da matriz, dopados pelos cátions VO2+. No entretanto, tanto a síntese do compósito, como o seu desempenho eletroanalítico com o letrozol podem ser considerados eficientes.

SUMMARY The process of the electroanalytical determination of letrozol drug, assisted by the cathodically obtained VO(OH)-Polypyrrole, has been theoretically described. For both the composite synthesis and electroanalytical function a mathematical model has been suggested and analyzed by means of linear stability theory and bifurcation analysis. It was shown that, contrarily to the cathodic polypyrrole electrosynthesis, initiated by a compound in a solution, the resulting cathodic polypyrrole has more "centred" morphology, in the relation to the matrix active centers, doped by VO2+ cations. Nevertheless, either the synthesis of the composite, or its electroanalytical function with letrozole may be considered efficient.

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RESUMO Por meio de uma análise teórica, foi avaliado o desempenho do compósito do oxihidróxido do vanádio trivalente com o polímero do corante alaranjado da acridina, na detecção eletroquímica do fármaco antiparquinsônico entacapona. O processo eletroanalítico é baseado na eletrorredução do fármaco mencionado. Do desenvolvimento e da análise do modelo matemático correspondente, mediante a teoria de estabilidade linear e anáise de bifurcações, foi possível concluir que o compósito pode ser um modificador eficiente para a determinação da entacapona. Os comportamentos oscilatórios e monotônico, neste sistema, também são passíveis de realizar.

SUMMARY By means of a theoretical analysis, the function of trivalent vanadium oxyhydroxyde composite with the polymer of the acridine orange dye for electrochemical evaluation of entacapone antiparkinsonic drug has been evaluated. The electroanalytical process is based on the electrochemical reduction of the mentioned drug. From development and analysis of the correspondent mathematical model by means of linear stability theory and bifurcation analysis, it was possible to conclude that the composite is an efficient electrode modifier for entacapone determination. The oscillatory and monotonic instabilities in this system are also capable to realize.

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RESUMEN Mediante el análisis mecanístico teórico, ha sido evaluada la posibilidad del empleo del oxihidróxido de vanadio como modificador de electrodo para la detección electroquímica de sacarina. El proceso electroanalítico se realiza a través de un proceso catódico. El modelo matemático correspondiente ha sido analizado mediante la teoría de estabilidad lineal y análisis de bifurcaciones. El análisis del modelo ha mostrado que el oxihidróxido de vanadio puede ser un modificador eficiente para la detección electroquímica de la sacarina en las condiciones del pH suficientemente ácido para mover el proceso, pero insuficiente para disolver el oxihidróxido. Las causas de los comportamientos oscilatorio y monotónico también fueron estipuladas.

SUMMARY By means of the theoretical mechanistic analysis, the possibility of the use of vanadium oxyhydroxide as electrode modifier for saccharin electrochemical determination has been evaluated. The electroanalytical process is realizing by a cathodic route. The correspondent mathematical model has been analyzed by means of the linear stability theory and bifurcation analysis. The analysis of the model has shown that the vanadium oxyhydroxide is an efficient electrode modifier for saccharin electrochemical detection in pH sufficiently low to maintain the process, but insufficiently acidic to dissolve the oxyhydroxide. The causes for the oscillatory and monotonic instabilities have also been derived.

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RESUMO Pela primeira vez foi descrito um caso interessante de uso do oxihidróxido de vanádio trivalente (VO(OH)) como modificador de elétrodo na detecção eletroquímica de nandrolona. Foi mostrado que o oxihidróxido de vanádio pode ser um modificador eficiente para a detecção de nandrolona, mas, ao contrário da maioria dos casos de uso de oxihidróxido de cobalto, composto parecido, o processo é catódico e dá-se em meio moderadamente ácido a neutro. O comportamento oscilatório, no sistema, é possível apenas por causa das influências do processo da eletrorredução de vanádio tetravalente em trivalente na dupla camada elétrica.

SUMMARY An interesting case of the use of trivalent vanadium oxyhydroxide (VO(OH)) as an electrode modifier for nandrolone electrochemical determination has been described for the first time. It was shown that vanadium (III) oxyhydroxide may be an efficient electrode modifier for nandrolone determination, but, contrarily to the majority of the cases of the use of cobalt (III) oxyhydroxide, which is a relative compound, the process is cathodic and it is realized in moderately acid solutions, tending to neutral. The oscillatory behavior in the system is possible, due to the influence of the electrochemical reduction of tetravalent vanadium to trivalent in double electric layer.

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RESUMO A possibilidade do uso de um novo derivado de acridina, munido de um grupo doador de elétrons, como modificador de elétrons para a detecção do conteúdo total do ácido gálico em goma de alfarroba tem sido avaliada mediante uma análise teórica. O modelo matemático correspondente foi analisado mediante a teoria de estabilidade linear e análise de bifurcações. Foi mostrado que o derivado fosfazoico da acridina pode servir de modificador eficiente para a detecção eletroanalítica do conteúdo total do ácido gálico em alfarroba. As causas dos comportamentos oscilatório e monotônico também foram detectadas.

SUMMARY The possibility of the use of the novel acridinic derivative, containing an electron donor moiety in the total gallic acid content determination in carob gum has been evaluated by means of a theoretical analysis. The correspondent mathematical model has been analyzed by linear stability theory and bifurcation analysis. It was shown that the phosphazoic acridine derivative may serve as an efficient electrode modifier for electroanalytical determination of the total content of gallic acid in carob. The causes for the oscillatory and monotonic behavior have also been stipulated.

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RESUMEN La posibilidad del empleo de oxihidróxido de cobalto como modificador del electrodo en la detección del ácido úrico se investigó desde el punto de vista teórico. Se sugiere el mecanismo del desempeño del compuesto inorgánico en el proceso, y el modelo, correspondiente al proceso, se analizó mediante la teoría de estabilidad lineal y análisis de bifurcaciones. Se concluye que el oxihidróxido de cobalto puede servir como un modificador eficiente, facilitando la oxidación del analito en medio neutro en el modo galvanostático. La inestabilidad monotónica para este caso no puede realizarse, y la oscilatoria es causada por el único factor.

SUMMARY The possibility of use of cobalt oxyhydroxide as an electrode modifier in the uric acid determination has been investigated from the theoretical point of view. The mechanism of the use of the inorganic compound in the process has been suggested, and the model, correspondent to the process, has been analyzed by means of linear stability theory and bifurcation analysis. It has been concluded that the cobalt oxyhydroxide may serve as an efficient modifier, making easier the analyte oxidation in neutral media in galvanostatic mode. The monotonic instability for this case isn't capable to realize, and the oscillatory behavior is caused by the unique factor.

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RESUMO O comportamento eletroquímico da lidocaína durante a sua eletrooxidação sobre o oxihidróxido de cobalto trivalente em meio levemente básico, realizada para fins eletroanalíticos, foi avaliado do ponto de vista mecanístico matemático. Da análise foi feita uma conclusão acerca do desempenho do CoO(OH) como modificador de elétrodo na eletrooxidação da lidocaína in vivo e in vitro. Foi, outrossim, verificada a possibilidade da realização das instabilidades oscilatória e monotônica no sistema.

Summary The electrochemical behavior of lidocaine during its electrooxidation over trivalent cobalt oxyhydroxide in lightly alkaline medium, realized for electroanalytical purposes, was evaluated from the mechanistic mathematical point of view. From analysis a conclusion has been made of the electroanalytical function of CoO(OH) as an electrode modifier for lidocaine electrooxidation in vivo and in vitro. Also, the possibility of oscillatory and monotonic instabilities has been verified in the system.

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RESUMO Um caso interessante da eletrooxidação de dopamina, acompanhada por sua eletropolimerização, em que tanto o monômero, como o polímero condutor resultante podem ser oxidados até à respectiva forma quinônica, foi investigado do ponto de vista teórico. A análise do modelo matemático, correspondente a este sistema, mostrou que o estado estacionário, neste sistema é fácil de manter estável, apesar de a zona topológica, correspondente a esta estabilidade, ser mais estreita. Já as instabilidades oscilatória e monotônica mostraram-se mais prováveis neste caso que em sistemas semelhantes.

SUMMARY An interesting case for dopamine electrooxidation, in which either a monomer, or a polymer may be oxidized to the correspondent quinonic form, has been investigated from the theoretical point of view. The analysis o the correspondent mathematical model has shown that in this system the steady-state is easy to maintain stable, despite of the more narrow extension of the topological zone, correspondent to this stability. Yet the oscillatory and monotonic instabilities may be more probable in this cast, than in the similar ones.

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RESUMEN Se evaluó teóricamente el desempeño electroanalítico de un electrodo polimérico conductor, modificado por fragmentos de safranina, en la cuantificación electroquímica de compuestos hidroquinónicos (con el ejemplo de galato de propilo). El modelo matemático correspondiente se evaluó mediante la teoría de estabilidad lineal y de análisis de bifurcaciones. El desempeño de safranina como modificadora de electrodo se comparó con el de las otras sustancias modificadoras. La presencia de inestabilidades electroquímicas también se averiguó.

SUMMARY The electroanalytical performance of a conducting polymer electrode, modified by safranin fragments, was theoretically evaluated in the electrochemical quantification of hydroquinone compounds (with the example of propyl gallate). The corresponding mathematical model was evaluated using linear stability theory and bifiir-cation analysis. The performance of safranin as an electrode modifier was compared to that of the other modifying substances. The presence of electrochemical instabilities was also investigated.

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The development of sensors and biosensors based on copper enzymes and/or copper oxides for phenol sensing is disclosed in this work. The electrochemical properties were studied by cyclic and differential pulse voltammetry using standard solutions of potassium ferrocyanide, phosphate/acetate buffers and representative natural phenols in a wide pH range (3.0 to 9.0). Among the natural phenols herein investigated, the highest sensitivity was observed for rutin, a powerful antioxidant widespread in functional foods and ubiquitous in the plant kingdom. The calibration curve for rutin performed at optimum pH (7.0) was linear in a broad concentration range, 1 to 120 µM (r = 0.99), showing detection limits of 0.4 µM. The optimized biomimetic sensor was also applied in total phenol determination in natural samples, exhibiting higher stability and sensitivity as well as distinct selectivity for antioxidant compounds.

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Carbon nanotubes and other forms of carbon nanoparticles, as well as metal nanoparticles have been widely used in film electrochemistry because they allow for the immobilization of larger amounts of catalyst (either biological or inorganic) on the top of the modified electrodes. Nevertheless, those nanoparticles present high costs of synthesis and of separation and purification that hamper their employment. On the other hand, imogolites (Im), with the general formula (OH)3Al2O3SiOH, are naturally-occurring nanomaterials, which can be obtained from glassy volcanic ash soils and can also be synthesized at mild conditions. In this research paper, we characterize through spectroscopic techniques (i.e., fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM)) synthetized Im and Fe-modified imogolite (Im(Fe)). Moreover, the Im and Im(Fe) were physically adsorbed on the top of a graphite electrode (GE) and were characterized electrochemically in the potential region ranging from -0.8 to 0.8 V vs. the saturated calomel electrode (SCE). When the film of the Im or of the Im(Fe) was present on the top of the electrode, the intensity of the charging/discharging current increased two-fold, but no redox activity in the absence of O2 could be appreciated. To show that Im and Im(Fe) could be used as support for catalysts, iron phthalocyanine (FePc) was adsorbed on the top of the Im or Im(Fe) film, and the electrocatalytic activity towards the O2 reduction was measured. In the presence of the Im, the measured electrocatalytic current for O2 reduction increased 30%, and the overpotential drastically decreased by almost 100 mV, proving that the Im can act as a good support for the electrocatalysts.

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This report describes the development and application of a novel graphene-modified electrode to be used as amperometric sensor in microchip electrophoresis (ME) devices. The modified electrode was achieved based on electroreduction of graphene oxide on an integrated Pt working electrode of a commercial ME device. The surface modification was characterized by SEM and cyclic voltammetry techniques. The results indicated that graphene sheets were successfully deposited exhibiting higher surface conductivity and greater electrode sensitivity. The performance of the modified electrode for the amperometric detection on ME devices has been demonstrated by the separation and detection of an anionic mixture containing iodide and ascorbate. The graphene-modified electrode provided significantly higher sensitivity (896.7 vs. 210.9 pA/µM for iodide and 217.8 vs. 127.8 pA/µM for ascorbate), better separation efficiencies (3400 vs. 700 plates/m for iodide and 10 000 vs. 2400 plates/m for ascorbate), enhanced peak resolutions (1.6 vs. 1.0), and LODs (1.5 vs. 5.3 µM for iodide and 3.1 vs. 7.3 µM for ascorbate) in comparison with the unmodified Pt electrode. The proposed amperometric sensor was successfully applied for the analysis of ascorbic acid (through its anionic form) in a commercial medicine sample, and the results achieved were in agreement with the value provided by the supplier. Based on the data here presented, the modified graphene electrode shows great promise for ME applications.

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A model for the differential capacitance of metal electrodes coated by solid polymer electrolyte membranes, with acid/base groups attached to the membrane backbone, and in contact with an electrolyte solution is developed. With proper model parameters, the model is able to predict a limit response, given by Mott-Schottky or Gouy-Chapman-Stern theories depending on the dissociation degree and the density of ionizable acid/base groups. The model is also valid for other ionic membranes with proton donor/acceptor molecules as membrane counterions. Results are discussed in light of the electron transfer rate at membrane-coated electrodes for electrochemical reactions that strongly depend on the double layer structure. In this sense, the model provides a tool towards the understanding of the electro-catalytic activity on modified electrodes. It is shown that local maxima and minima in the differential capacitance as a function of the electrode potential may occur as consequence of the dissociation of acid/base molecular species, in absence of specific adsorption of immobile polymer anions on the electrode surface. Although the model extends the conceptual framework for the interpretation of cyclic voltammograms for these systems and the general theory about electrified interfaces, structural features of real systems are more complex and so, presented results only are qualitatively compared with experiments.

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