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Strongly seasonal environments pose challenges for performance and survival of animals, especially when resource abundance seasonally fluctuates. We investigated the seasonal variation of key metabolic biomarkers in the muscles of males from three species (Rhinella jimi, R. granulosa and Pleurodema diplolister) of anurans from the drastically seasonal Brazilian semi-arid area, Caatinga. We examined the expression of proteins regulating energy turnover (AMP-activated protein kinase [AMPK] and protein kinase B [AKT]), protein synthesis and homeostasis (total and phosphorylated eukaryotic initiation factor 2α [eIF2α and p-eIF2α] and chaperone proteins [HSP 60, 70, and 90]) in muscles predominantly related to reproduction and locomotion. Cytochrome c oxidase (COX) activity was also assessed as an index of the muscle aerobic capacity. The expression pattern of metabolic biomarkers indicates that the maintenance of muscular function is regulated in a species-specific manner during the drastic seasonal variation. Rhinella jimi and R. granulosa that remain active during the drought appear to maintain muscles through more energy expensive pathways including elevated protein synthesis, while the aestivating P. diplolister employs energy conservation strategy suppressing protein synthesis, decreasing chaperone expression and increasing expression of AMPK. Two (P. diplolister and R. granulosa) of the three studied species activate cell survival pathways during the drought likely to prevent muscle atrophy, and all three studied species maintain the muscle aerobic capacity throughout the year, despite the resource limitation. These strategies are important considering the unpredictability of the reproductive event and high demand on muscular activity during the reproductive season in these amphibians. SUMMARY STATEMENT: We studied seasonal variation of key metabolic biomarkers in the muscles of anurans that experience drastic variation in environmental conditions and differ in seasonal activity patterns.

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The acid-base status is a tightly regulated physiological process, resulting from a balance of ions in the organism relevant to acid-base. The efficiency of the regulatory systems importantly determines the compensatory pH changes for a given disturb. Vertebrates minimize (or compensate) an acid-base disturb by general processes, which include ion transfer and/or PCO2 changes. Acid-base adjustment in fish is predominantly achieved by branchial exchange of acid-base relevant ions with correlated change in plasma HCO3- levels. Conversely, land vertebrates change blood PCO2 through ventilatory process and hence respiratory control of acid-base regulation plays an important role as a compensatory mechanism. Lungfishes (Dipnoi) have central position on vertebrate's evolution being considered as the sister group to the tetrapods. With an aquatic life mode, lungfish share similarities of respiratory function with tetrapods. This article reviews evidence showing that lungfish's respiratory system regulates acid-base status, like terrestrial ectothermic vertebrates. In the South American lungfish, Lepidosiren paradoxa, the presence of central CO2/pH chemoreceptors was unequivocally described. Also, the blood PCO2 and acid-base status are typical of a terrestrial vertebrate. These aspects are discussed under different environmental conditions that require respiratory acid-base adjustments, such as, exposure to hypercarbia, hypoxia, high temperature and aestivation. Interesting questions regarding the location and cell phenotype of CO2/pH central and peripheral chemoreceptors remain an open field to be explored in lungfish.

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Nearly half of all terrestrial tropical ecosystems around the globe comprise dry forests, characterised through elevated temperatures all year round, and short rainy seasons at irregular intervals. The consequent water deficit over several consecutive months limits the availability of floral resources to often very brief and unpredictable periods, which poses a challenge to the maintenance of perennial colonies in highly eusocial bees. Thus, only few highly eusocial bees occur permanently in tropical dry forests, among them some highly adapted species of stingless bees (Apidae, Meliponini). In the present review, we discuss the current knowledge on the adaptations to such extreme environments in Melipona subnitida, a stingless bee native to the Brazilian tropical dry forest. Key to the success of this species is not so much heat resistance of foragers, as it is the ability to maintain perennial colonies despite extended dearth periods. After several months of drought, M. subnitida colonies are capable of re-establishing fully functional colonies from nests containing only few dozens of workers. This surprising resilience is based on a quick reaction to precipitation-driven increase in floral resource availability, mainly owing to selective foraging at high-profit resources and an immediate up-regulation of brood production once food storage conditions improve.

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Elevated androgens and glucocorticoids displayed by males during the reproductive season have been proposed to mediate a possible trade-off between reproduction and immunocompetence. Anurans living in arid and semiarid environments display a strong seasonal reproduction, which could accentuate the variation in physiological, immunological, and behavioral parameters. We studied covariation between steroid plasma levels, morphometric variables associated with body condition and immunity, leukocyte profile, parasite load, and response to an immunological challenge across different phases of the annual life-history cycle of three anuran species from a Brazilian semiarid area. Our results showed a seasonal pattern of covariation among leukocyte parameters, kidney mass, and steroid plasma levels, with higher values measured during the reproductive season, particularly when males were sampled during calling activity. Moreover, these anurans showed a stronger response to an immunological challenge during the reproductive period. The immunosuppression during the dry period was particularly evident for the species that aestivate, indicating that the availability of energetic resources might be an important factor determining seasonal variation in inflammatory response. Intensity of the helminth infection was associated with eosinophil count but showed a more complex pattern with regard to androgens levels. These data emphasize that variations in the intensity of helminth infection might be more closely related to specific aspects of the immune response than to the general seasonal patterns of variation in steroid plasma levels, total circulating leukocytes, and inflammatory response.

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PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Pentaclethra and Dimorphandra (Leguminosae) have long been considered a possible enigmatic link between caesalpinioids and mimosoids because they both have an imbricate calyx and heteromorphic androecium, floral features that are rare among mimosoids but common among caesalpinioids. This study compared the developing flowers of Dimorphandra mollis and Pentaclethra macroloba to determine whether the shared floral conditions also have the same ontogenetic origin. METHODS: Buds of different sizes and flowers were processed for surface (scanning electron microscopy) and histological (light microscopy) examination. KEY RESULTS: The floral meristem initiates five sepal primordia in a modified helical order in both species. The median sagittal sepal is adaxial. The overlap of the sepals during elongation culminates with the formation of the imbricate calyx. Heteromorphic androecia arise in the intermediate stages of development. In P. macroloba, the fertile pollen-bearing stamens are antesepalous, robust and short, and the anthers carry a robust apical gland; the staminodes are long and white with a vestigial apical gland. In contrast, in D. mollis the fertile pollen-bearing stamens are antepetalous without glands and as long as the staminodes. The staminodes are thinner with an expanded apical region. CONCLUSIONS: The imbricate calyx and the heteromorphic androecium in the studied species originated via distinct pathways, favoring the hypothesis of homoplasy of these conditions. The pathways observed in P. macroloba are more similar to those observed in caesalpinioids than to those observed in mimosoids, indicating that although the floral development differs between the species studied, it supports the basal placement of Pentaclethra among mimosoids.

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Anurans living in arid and semi-arid habitats are subjected to unpredictable rain patterns. Consequently, they should be prepared to reproduce at the onset of rain events. We investigated the covariation between calling behavior, testicular maturation, abdominal fat body index (FBI), plasma levels of androgens (T-DHT) and corticosterone (CORT) of males from three species of anurans in the Brazilian semi-arid during the reproductive period and drought. One of these species aestivates during the drought, while the other two species remain foraging. Although the three species display different behavioral strategies during the dry period, they present the same general reproductive patterns. T-DHT levels on the plasma and germinative cyst diameters were higher during the reproductive and breeding period compared to the drought. Additionally, the germinative cysts had all cell stages including sperm bundles during the dry season, however, it was only during the breeding event that free spermatozoa were found in the cyst lumen. These results suggest that these species present the reproductive pattern typical of desert anurans, consisting of opportunistic breeders that reproduce when triggered by a rain stimulus. Rhinella jimi and Pleurodema diplolister had higher CORT when males were calling. Moreover, Rhinella granulosa and P. diplolister showed lower FBI during breeding event, when males were calling. The high levels of CORT and lower FBI during reproductive period are associated, indicating that CORT modulates the recruitment of energy stores to prepare and maintain reproduction, particularly the expensive calling effort.

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Achatina fulica Bowdich, 1822 is an african snail that is invasive in different parts of the world, being characterized mainly by its high adaptability. Our objective was to evaluate the influence of abiotic factors, such as temperature and substrate, on the egg eclosion, adult and juvenile reaction to different abiotics factors, and the resistance of A. fulica to popular methods of control. Three studies were made, including 19 laboratory experiments and observations of free animals in the municipal district of Guaraqueçaba, southern Brazil. Eggs were characterized as the most fragile phase, whereas the juveniles and adults were resistant to the immersion in fresh and salt water and little resistant to temperature variation and salt, using burying, aestivation, and muscular force as defense strategies. Those strategies should be considered in management actions and in orientating popular methods of control.

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Achatina fulica Bowdich, 1822 is an african snail that is invasive in different parts of the world, being characterized mainly by its high adaptability. Our objective was to evaluate the influence of abiotic factors, such as temperature and substrate, on the egg eclosion, adult and juvenile reaction to different abiotics factors, and the resistance of A. fulica to popular methods of control. Three studies were made, including 19 laboratory experiments and observations of free animals in the municipal district of Guaraqueçaba, southern Brazil. Eggs were characterized as the most fragile phase, whereas the juveniles and adults were resistant to the immersion in fresh and salt water and little resistant to temperature variation and salt, using burying, aestivation, and muscular force as defense strategies. Those strategies should be considered in management actions and in orientating popular methods of control.

RESUMO

Achatina fulica Bowdich, 1822 is an african snail that is invasive in different parts of the world, being characterized mainly by its high adaptability. Our objective was to evaluate the influence of abiotic factors, such as temperature and substrate, on the egg eclosion, adult and juvenile reaction to different abiotics factors, and the resistance of A. fulica to popular methods of control. Three studies were made, including 19 laboratory experiments and observations of free animals in the municipal district of Guaraqueçaba, southern Brazil. Eggs were characterized as the most fragile phase, whereas the juveniles and adults were resistant to the immersion in fresh and salt water and little resistant to temperature variation and salt, using burying, aestivation, and muscular force as defense strategies. Those strategies should be considered in management actions and in orientating popular methods of control.

RESUMO

Achatina fulica Bowdich, 1822 is an african snail that is invasive in different parts of the world, being characterized mainly by its high adaptability. Our objective was to evaluate the influence of abiotic factors, such as temperature and substrate, on the egg eclosion, adult and juvenile reaction to different abiotics factors, and the resistance of A. fulica to popular methods of control. Three studies were made, including 19 laboratory experiments and observations of free animals in the municipal district of Guaraqueçaba, southern Brazil. Eggs were characterized as the most fragile phase, whereas the juveniles and adults were resistant to the immersion in fresh and salt water and little resistant to temperature variation and salt, using burying, aestivation, and muscular force as defense strategies. Those strategies should be considered in management actions and in orientating popular methods of control.

RESUMO

Achatina fulica Bowdich, 1822 is an african snail that is invasive in different parts of the world, being characterized mainly by its high adaptability. Our objective was to evaluate the influence of abiotic factors, such as temperature and substrate, on the egg eclosion, adult and juvenile reaction to different abiotics factors, and the resistance of A. fulica to popular methods of control. Three studies were made, including 19 laboratory experiments and observations of free animals in the municipal district of Guaraqueçaba, southern Brazil. Eggs were characterized as the most fragile phase, whereas the juveniles and adults were resistant to the immersion in fresh and salt water and little resistant to temperature variation and salt, using burying, aestivation, and muscular force as defense strategies. Those strategies should be considered in management actions and in orientating popular methods of control.

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Metabolic changes, principally in intermediary metabolism and nitrogen excretion, were investigated in the marble swamp eel (Synbranchus marmoratus) after 15 and 45 days of artificially induced semi-aestivation. Glucose, glycogen, lactate, pyruvate, free amino acids, triglycerides, ammonia, urea, and urate contents were determined in liver, kidney, white muscle, heart, brain, and plasma. Lactate dehydrogenase, glutamate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase, aspartate amino transferase, alanine amino transferase, glutamine synthase, ornithine carbamoyl transferase, and arginase enzymes were assayed. The teleost S. marmoratus maintained initial energetic demands by lipid oxidation. The course of normal oxidative processes was observed through tissue enzyme profiles. After the lipid stores were exhausted, the fish consumed body proteins. Constant values of hematocrit during induced semi-aestivation suggested that the water balance remained normal. Therefore, the surrounding water was probably did not trigger the semi-aestivation in this teleost. Decrease of ammonia and increase of renal urea synthesis after 45 days of semi-aestivation led to the assumption that an alternative form of eliminating ammonia exists. Metabolic changes entailed by starvation were proposed to explain the biosynthesis of small molecules involved in the semi-aestivation of S. marmoratus.

Foram investigadas variações metabólicas em muçum (Synbranchus marmoratus) após 15 e 45 dias de semi-estivação artificial induzida, com ênfase no metabolismo intermediário e excreção de nitrogênio. Glicose, glicogênio, lactato, piruvato, aminoácidos livres, triglicerídios, amônia, uréia e uratos foram determinados em fígado, rim, músculo branco, coração, cérebro, e plasma. As enzimas lactato desidrogenase, glutamato desidrogenase, malato desidrogenase, aspartato amino transferase, alanina amino transferase, glutamina sintetase, ornitina carbamil transferase e arginase foram ensaiadas. O teleósteo S. marmoratus manteve sua demanda energética inicial pela oxidação de lipídios. A seqüência normal dos processos oxidativos foi observada por meio do perfil enzimático. Após o consumo das reservas lipídicas, os peixes passaram a consumir proteína. Valores constantes de hematócrito durante a semi-estivação induzida sugeriu que o balanço de água foi mantido normal. Todavia, a água ambiental provavelmente não foi o sinal inicial da semi-estivação em S. marmoratus. A diminuição de amônia e o aumento da síntese de uréia renal após 45 dias de semi-estivação levaram a assumir que existe uma forma alternativa de eliminar amônia. As variações metabólicas conseqüentes do jejum prolongado foram propostas como responsáveis pela síntese de pequenas moléculas envolvidas na semi-estivação de S. marmoratus.