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Groundwater is the main source of water for more than 2 billion people worldwide. In southern Brazil, the Crystalline Basement Aquifer System is composed of strategic groundwater reservoirs. Groundwater is mostly taken from shallow wells, and it is often used without any treatment, which poses a risk to public health. The present study aims to evaluate shallow groundwater quality and the geochemistry of shallow and deep groundwater located in the municipality of Canguçu, southern Brazil. The physicochemical and microbiological parameters of groundwater samples collected from shallow wells were monitored and analyzed using ANOVA variance analysis and water quality index (CCME WQI) approaches. Also, the results were compared with secondary data from deep wells. The monitored shallow wells had thermotolerant coliforms, Escherichia coli, pH, potassium, manganese, iron, and nitrate in disagreement with the guidelines of the World Health Organization. Moreover, variance analysis showed that the parameters temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, chloride, and magnesium were the most influenced by seasonal variations. According to the CCME WQI, most samples had good quality (60%), 28% had fair quality, and 12% had poor quality. In addition, the field campaigns with higher precipitation rates also presented fair quality. Therefore, most of the shallow groundwater quality is affected by surface pollutants from the urban area, aggravated in rainy periods. Whereas deep groundwater is influenced by geochemistry mechanisms. The results revealed the risk of water consumption for public health and the urgent need for better maintenance of these wells and water treatment implementation.

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Food and waterborne illnesses are still a major concern in health and food safety areas. Every year, almost 0.42 million and 2.2 million deaths related to food and waterborne illness are reported worldwide, respectively. In foodborne pathogens, bacteria such as Salmonella, Shiga-toxin producer Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, and Listeria monocytogenes are considered to be high-concern pathogens. High-concern waterborne pathogens are Vibrio cholerae, leptospirosis, Schistosoma mansoni, and Schistosima japonicum, among others. Despite the major efforts of food and water quality control to monitor the presence of these pathogens of concern in these kinds of sources, foodborne and waterborne illness occurrence is still high globally. For these reasons, the development of novel and faster pathogen-detection methods applicable to real-time surveillance strategies are required. Methods based on biosensor devices have emerged as novel tools for faster detection of food and water pathogens, in contrast to traditional methods that are usually time-consuming and are unsuitable for large-scale monitoring. Biosensor devices can be summarized as devices that use biochemical reactions with a biorecognition section (isolated enzymes, antibodies, tissues, genetic materials, or aptamers) to detect pathogens. In most cases, biosensors are based on the correlation of electrical, thermal, or optical signals in the presence of pathogen biomarkers. The application of nano and molecular technologies allows the identification of pathogens in a faster and high-sensibility manner, at extremely low-pathogen concentrations. In fact, the integration of gold, silver, iron, and magnetic nanoparticles (NP) in biosensors has demonstrated an improvement in their detection functionality. The present review summarizes the principal application of nanomaterials and biosensor-based devices for the detection of pathogens in food and water samples. Additionally, it highlights the improvement of biosensor devices through nanomaterials. Nanomaterials offer unique advantages for pathogen detection. The nanoscale and high specific surface area allows for more effective interaction with pathogenic agents, enhancing the sensitivity and selectivity of the biosensors. Finally, biosensors' capability to functionalize with specific molecules such as antibodies or nucleic acids facilitates the specific detection of the target pathogens.

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Diarrhea remains a significant cause of death worldwide among children under five years old. In Brazil, the highest incidence of the disease occurs in the north region, and the epidemiological characteristics of diarrhea in Araguatins, TO, northern Brazil,have not been reported. The present study aimed to analyze the occurrence of acute diarrheal diseases (ADD) in Araguatins between 2014 and 2019 and its relationship with the quality of the public water supply. The study also analyzed the correlation between ADD frequency and rotavirus vaccination coverage of children. The data were obtained from the Brazilian Ministry of Health (SIVEP-DDA database) and the Health Surveillance Agency of Araguatins. The reported cases of acute diarrheal diseases significantly increased in 2018 and 2019 compared to the other years, and the occurrence of greater severity in the age group of10 years increased in the same period. The highest incidence of diarrhea occurred in 2018 when the application of rotavirus vaccines to children was the lowest. In most years investigated, the cases of acute diarrheal diseases occurred in both rainy and dry periods. However, in 2016, diarrhea cases were concentrated in the dry period, and Escherichia coli and total coliforms were found more frequently in the public water supply. The highest frequency of contamination with E. coliand total coliforms occurred in the Downtown area. The conclusion was that diarrheal disease may be caused, at least partially, by water-conveying agents in the treated public water supply of the Araguatins.

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Las enfermedades transmitidas por el agua son enfermedades provocadas por el consumo del agua contaminada con sustancias químicas y restos fecales de humanos o animales que contiene microorganismos patogénicos. Su importancia ha sido remarcada por distintos organismos internacionales en relación al derecho a la salud universal, hasta el punto de estar contempladas en forma específica dentro del plan de acción de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS, Meta 3.3). Si bien este grupo de enfermedades depende en forma importante del abastecimiento de agua potable en la población, existen muchos factores que también inciden en la higiene del agua y el saneamiento. Por ello, el objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar la importancia de distintos factores socio-económicos y sanitarios en la mortalidad por enfermedades transmitidas por el agua en Argentina, analizando la distribución geográfica y evolución de los datos durante el primer decenio del siglo XXI. Para ello, se calcularon tasas específicas de mortalidad por causa y se realizaron regresiones logísticas con variables socioeconómicas seleccionadas. Los resultados muestran una relación lineal más importante de estas enfermedades con la falta de cobertura de obra social, el hacinamiento y pertenencia a un área rural, que con el abastecimiento de agua potable.

Waterborne diseases are diseases caused by the consumption of water contaminated with chemical substances and fecal remains of humans or animals containing pathogenic microorganisms. Its importance has been highlighted by different international organizations in relation to the right to universal health, to the point of being contemplated specifically within the action plan of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG, Goal 3.3). Although this group of diseases depends heavily on the population's drinking water supply, there are many factors that also affect water hygiene and sanitation. Therefore, the objective of this work was to determine the importance of different socio-economic and health factors in mortality from waterborne diseases in Argentina, analyzing the geographical distribution and evolution of the data during the first decade of the 21st century. To do this, cause-specific mortality rates were calculated and logistic regressions were performed with selected socioeconomic variables. The results showed a more important linear relationship of these diseases with the lack of health coverage, overcrowding and belonging to a rural area, than with the supply of drinking water.

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Two zoonotic protozoan pathogens, Giardia duodenalis and Toxoplasma gondii, are important causes of waterborne infections in the Quindío region in Colombia. No previous data exist on how contamination occurs at the source for drinking water consumed by the human population in this region. Our aim was to describe the frequency of G. duodenalis and T. gondii DNA in 11 sampling points during a five-month period in water and adjacent soil at the Quindío River basin (Andean region in the central western part of Colombia). The study employed nested PCR for T. gondii, using the B1 gene as the amplification target, and single-round PCR for G. duodenalis assemblage A and assemblage B, amplifying the gdh gene, followed by DNA sequencing. In 50 soil samples, 28% (14/50) were positive for T. gondii. For G. duodenalis, distribution was in equal parts for assemblage A (8%; 4/50) and assemblage B (8%, 4/50). Genotyping of T. gondii sequences showed two soil samples with type I strain, another two samples of soil with type III strain, but most samples were of unidentified strains. In water samples, T. gondii was detected in 9.1% (5/55), G. duodenalis assemblage A in 34.5% (19/55), and G. duodenalis assemblage B in 12.7% (7/55). T. gondii DNA positivity was associated with lower soil temperature (p = 0.0239). Presence of G. duodenalis and T. gondii was evidenced in soil and water samples in the Quindío River basin, indicating soil as the potential source of contamination for the river that it is destined for human consumption. Monitoring these protozoa in drinking water is necessary to prevent public health risks in human populations.

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The aim of this study was to investigate an outbreak caused by protozoa, which occurred in a municipality in the Brazil southern region. The investigations were carried out analyzing 47 fresh stool samples and 26 water samples by parasitological and molecular methods, as well as, direct immunofluorescence. After the filtrations of water samples and purification of stool samples, the concentrates were evaluated microscopically for presence of parasites. Molecular analyses were performed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for DNA detection of Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium parvum, C. hominis and Cyclospora cayetanensis. Out of 26 water samples, 30.8% (8/26) had waterborne protozoa and C. cayetanensis was the most prevalent (15.5%). Out of the 47 stool samples, 23.4% (11/47) were infected with C. cayetanensis and Giardia spp. The results showed that backwash water samples from filters of the Water Treatment Station were contaminated with C. cayetanensis, C. hominis and Giardia spp., suggesting the contamination of water sources with human waste brought by sewage. These results show the importance of protozoa investigation in water and stool samples by laboratory methodologies principally in outbreaks causing acute diarrheal disease (AU).

O objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar um surto causado por protozoários, ocorrido em um município da região sul do Brasil. As investigações foram realizadas analisando 47 amostras de fezes frescas e 26 amostras de água por métodos parasitológicos, moleculares e de imunofluorscência direta. Após as filtrações das amostras de água e purificação das amostras de fezes, os concentrados foram avaliados microscopicamente a procura de parasitas. A seguir, foram analisadas, pela reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR), a detecção de DNA de Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium parvum, C. hominis e Cyclospora cayetanensis. Das 26 amostras de água, 30,8% (8/26) apresentaram protozoários de veiculação hídrica, sendo que, C. cayetanensis foi o mais prevalente (15,5%). Das 47 amostras de fezes, 23,4% (11/47) estavam infectadas por C. cayetanensis e Giardia spp. Os resultados mostraram que as águas de retrolavagem dos filtros da Estação de Tratamento de Água estavam contaminadas com C. cayetanensis, C. hominis e Giardia spp. sugerindo a contaminação dos mananciais com dejetos humanos trazidos pelo esgoto. Estes resultados mostram a importância da investigação de protozoários em água e fezes por metodologias laboratoriais, principalmente em surtos que causam doença diarreica aguda (AU).

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Even at low concentrations in environmental waters, some viruses are highly infective, making them a threat to human health. They are the leading cause of waterborne enteric diseases. In agriculture, plant viruses in irrigation and runoff water threat the crops. The low concentrations pose a challenge to early contamination detection. Thus, concentrating the virus particles into a small volume may be mandatory to achieve reliable detection in molecular techniques. This paper reviews the organic monoliths developments and their applications to concentrate virus particles from waters (waste, surface, tap, sea, and irrigation waters). Free-radical polymerization and polyaddition reactions are the most common strategies to prepare the monoliths currently used for virus concentration. Here, the routes for preparing and functionalizing both methacrylate and epoxy-based monoliths will be shortly described, following a revision of their retention mechanisms and applications in the concentration of enteric and plant viruses in several kinds of waters.

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RESUMEN Las enfermedades de transmisión hídrica, fueron causa importante de morbilidad y mortalidad durante las primeras décadas del siglo xx en Cuba. La búsqueda y solución de sus orígenes se debatieron por los científicos cubanos en importantes instituciones académicas y su evolución, mostrada a través de las estadísticas sanitarias. El objetivo de este trabajo es examinar las estadísticas sanitarias y las enfermedades de transmisión hídrica en Cuba, entre 1902-1925, a partir de la labor de prominentes científicos cubanos. Es un estudio observacional descriptivo de corte histórico que utilizó el método histórico lógico y el análisis inductivo-deductivo de las fuentes bibliográficas disponibles sobre la temática. Las estadísticas sanitarias y las enfermedades de transmisión hídrica constituían temas importantes en el quehacer de los científicos cubanos, demostrado por los aportes de personalidades como Jorge Le Roy, Carlos J. Finlay, José A. López del Valle, Juan Guiteras Gener y otros, que trascienden como ejemplos imprescindibles para el estudio de estos materiales y marcaron pautas para el desarrollo ulterior de la salud pública cubana. Una parte importante de su labor está recogida en fuentes científicas documentales de la época. El intercambio de ideas entre estas personalidades, demuestra el alto nivel científico y de actualización en que se encontraba la ciencia en Cuba en el primer cuarto del siglo xx. El debate, honesto y respetuoso entre ellos contribuyó al avance de las estadísticas sanitarias y al conocimiento de las enfermedades de transmisión hídrica y por ende, al avance de la ciencia cubana.

ABSTRACT Waterborne diseases were an important cause of morbidity and mortality during the first decades of the 20th century in Cuba. The search and solution of its origins were debated by Cuban scientists in important academic institutions and its evolution were shown through health statistics. The objective of this paper is to examine health statistics and waterborne diseases in Cuba, from 1902 to1925 based on the work of prominent Cuban scientists. This is a descriptive observational study of historical nature that used the logical historical method and the inductive-deductive analysis of the available bibliographic sources on the subject. Health statistics and waterborne diseases were important topics in the work of Cuban scientists, which is established by the contributions of personalities such as Jorge Le Roy, Carlos J. Finlay, José A. López del Valle, Juan Guiteras Gener and others, who transcend as essential examples for the study of these materials, and they set guidelines for the further development of Cuban public health. An important part of his study is collected in documentary scientific sources of the time. The exchange of ideas between these personalities reveals the high scientific and up-to-date level of science in Cuba in the first quarter of the 20th century. The honest and respectful debate among them contributed to the advancement of health statistics and knowledge of waterborne diseases and therefore, to the development of Cuban science.

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Investment in sanitation and drinking water infrastructure is essential for universal access to these services in developing countries. Universal coverage of water and sanitation services (WSS) can prevent the dissemination of waterborne diseases and mitigate their adverse effects. These diseases are responsible for many deaths worldwide, especially among the disadvantaged population and children. A causal effect can be established between WSS investment and hospital admissions due to waterborne diseases. Therefore, we considered an innovative network-DEA approach that models the link between serially connected subsystems (upstream investment and downstream hospitalizations). This approach allowed us: to measure the efficiency of both subsystems; estimate the amount of (efficient) investment necessary to universalize the access to proper WSS infrastructure; and mitigate hospital admissions due to waterborne diseases. We used the Brazil case study to test our model. On average, Brazilian states could increase the number of people not requiring hospitalizations due to waterborne diseases by 157 thousand per R$100 million invested in sanitation and 26 thousand per R$100 million invested in drinking water. Our results suggest that relatively small (efficient) investment in those two infrastructure types has a massive impact on hospitalizations. This impact would be more significant than the investment in WSS coverage. Therefore, if safely managed, WSS would cover all citizens, and Brazil would come closer to developed countries.

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Objective: The present study aimed to evaluate the microbiological quality of the water and the maintenance and physical structure of public drinking fountains located in the city of Araçatuba ­ SP. Methods: To assess the presence or absence of Escherichia coli and total coliforms in the drinking water 41 samples were randomly collected. Thirteen samples were collected in the year 2018 and 28 samples in 2019. Results: All samples collected in the year 2018 showed no total coliforms and E. coli. However, the samples collected in the year 2019 showed coliforms in 10% (3/28). All the drinking fountains analyzed demonstrated to be inadequate in at least one of the qualitative criteria considered. Conclusion: Our results indicate that are necessary periodic maintenance of the public drinking fountains and the monitoring of its water since these parameters serve as indicators of the integrity of the drinking water distribution system.

Objetivo: O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a qualidade microbiológica da água, a manutenção e estrutura física de bebedouros públicos localizados no município de Araçatuba - SP. Métodos: Para avaliar a presença ou ausência de Escherichia coli e coliformes totais na água de consumo, 41 amostras foram coletadas aleatoriamente. Treze amostras foram coletadas no ano de 2018 e 28 amostras em 2019. Resultados: Todas as amostras coletadas no ano de 2018 não apresentaram coliformes totais e E. coli. Porém, as amostras coletadas no ano de 2019 apresentaram coliformes em 10% (3/28). Todos os bebedouros analisados demonstraram ser inadequados em pelo menos um dos critérios qualitativos considerados. Conclusão: Nossos resultados indicam que são necessários a manutenção periódica dos bebedouros públicos e o monitoramento de sua água, visto que esses parâmetros servem como indicadores da integridade do sistema de distribuição de água potável.

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In 2015, an outbreak of presumed waterborne toxoplasmosis occurred in Gouveia, Brazil. We conducted a 3-year prospective study on a cohort of 52 patients from this outbreak, collected clinical and multimodal imaging findings, and determined risk factors for ocular involvement. At baseline examination, 12 (23%) patients had retinochoroiditis; 4 patients had bilateral and 2 had macular lesions. Multimodal imaging revealed 2 distinct retinochoroiditis patterns: necrotizing focal retinochoroiditis and punctate retinochoroiditis. Older age, worse visual acuity, self-reported recent reduction of visual acuity, and presence of floaters were associated with retinochoroiditis. Among patients, persons >40 years of age had 5 times the risk for ocular involvement. Five patients had recurrences during follow-up, a rate of 22% per person-year. Recurrences were associated with binocular involvement. Two patients had late ocular involvement that occurred >34 months after initial diagnosis. Patients with acquired toxoplasmosis should have long-term ophthalmic follow-up, regardless of initial ocular involvement.

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OBJECTIVES: We aim to describe the relationships between climate variables and climate-sensitive diseases (CSDs) in semi-arid regions, highlighting the different main groups of CSDs and their climate patterns. METHODS: This systematic review considered Medline, Science Direct, Scopus and Web of Science. The data collection period was August and September 2019 and included studies published between 2008 and 2019. This study followed a protocol based on the PRISMA statement. Data analysis was done in a qualitative way. RESULTS: The most of works were from Africa, Asia and Iran (71%), where temperature was the main climatic variable. Although the studies provide climatic conditions that are more favorable for the incidence of vector-borne and respiratory diseases, the influence of seasonal patterns on the onset, development and end of CSDs is still poorly understood, especially for gastrointestinal disorders. Moreover, little is known about the impact of droughts on CSDs. CONCLUSIONS: This review summarized the state of art of the relationship between climate and CSDs in semi-arid regions. Moreover, a research agenda was provided, which is fundamental for health policy development, priority setting and public health management.

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A mathematical model is developed to describe the dynamics of the spread of a waterborne disease among communities located along a flowing waterway. The model is formulated as a system of reaction-diffusion-advection partial differential equations in this spatial setting. The compartments of the model consist of susceptible, infected, and recovered individuals in the communities along the waterway, together with a term representing the pathogen load in each community and a term representing the spatial concentration of pathogens flowing along the waterway. The model is applied to the cholera outbreak in Haiti in 2010.

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Solid waste management is a challenge in developing countries. The Structural dump in Brasilia, Brazil, was the largest Latin American open-air dump until its closure in 2018. Thus, this study sought to investigate the prevalence of self-reported dengue, Zika and Chikungunya arbovirus infections in waste pickers who worked at the dumpsite and assess its association with the sanitary conditions in their residences and workplaces. This research used a mixed methods study using a questionnaire for the quantitative method and semi-structured interviews for the qualitative portion. A cross-sectional, observational, epidemiological study along with a phenomenological study were carried out to characterize socio environmental, occupational and health-related aspects to vector-borne diseases in Structural dumpsite in Brazil. Of the 1,025 respondents, 301 (29.2%) reported to have gotten sick from dengue, Zika or chikungunya fevers. We found significant associations between place of residence of waste pickers (p = 0,003) and the work conditions, use of personal protective equipment (p < 0.001) and weekly workload (p = 0.04) and occurrence of vector-borne disease. Results were confirmed by qualitative data and geo-referencing, in relation to location of their homes and proximity to the dumpsite, as well as through the vulnerability due to their working conditions. This research confirms that waste pickers are highly susceptible to vector-borne diseases; this situation that needs to be immediately addressed by interdisciplinary and intersectoral approaches in waste management and public health. This information confirms vulnerability of waste pickers to diseases transmitted by Ae. aegypti mosquito as a result of sanitary conditions at their residence and workplace.

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Brazil was home to the second largest open-air dump in the world, Estrutural, which officially closed in January of 2018; however, many dumpsites throughout the country continue to operate informally. Prior to government-recognized closure, there were about 1200 waste pickers working at the dump. These workers were subject to a myriad of occupational and environmental risks; one primary hazard involved exposure to contaminated water, which significantly affects health and quality of life. As part of the official closure plan for Estrutural, a study was conducted to determine the occurrence of waterborne diseases and rates of intestinal worms among the workers. A convergent parallel mixed methods approach, using a cross-sectional study and semi-structured interviews, sought to uncover answers to these objectives. There were 1025 waste pickers used in this study. Data confirmed waste pickers experienced continuous bouts of waterborne disease cases through episodic diarrhea (24.9%), intestinal worms (12.6%), hepatitis A (1.7%) and leptospirosis (0.7%). People who lived in unregulated areas (favelas) had increased risk of diarrhea (OR = 1.72) and those who did not use filtered water were at increased risk of intestinal worms (OR = 1.87) and diarrhea (OR = 1.5). Qualitative and quantitative data confirmed that many workers suffered from waterborne diseases, and that women were at greater risk than men. These findings highlight unsanitary and poor occupational health conditions for waste pickers at dumpsites, which likely continue despite official dumpsite closures. Moreover, this data provide evidence of supplemental occupational hazards to assess at dumpsites worldwide, especially for women.

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Resumen Este artículo pretende analizar la evolución de la mortalidad por enfermedades transmitidas por el agua durante el primer decenio del siglo XXI, por grupos de edades, comparando dos países del cono sur: Argentina y Brasil. Se estiman Años de Esperanza de Vida Perdidos (AEVP) por causa de muerte en base a la técnica descripta por Eduardo Arriaga. Para todas las estimaciones de defunción se utilizan promedios móviles para establecer dos períodos: 2000-2002 y 2009-2011. Se observa una tendencia general a la disminución de la mortalidad por enfermedades relacionadas con el agua, tanto en Argentina como en Brasil, con una velocidad de reducción promedio de los años de vida perdidos cercana al 1% anual. Esta reducción no es uniforme para todas las enfermedades relacionadas a este grupo de causas; de hecho existen causas que aumentan su mortalidad en el período estudiado, aunque en su mayoría se trata de brotes epidémicos. Por otro lado, el grupo de causas analizado impacta más en las edades más vulnerables: los menores de 1 año y los mayores de 50 años. Las intervenciones aisladas que se hacen sobre la higiene del agua, no logran por sí solas alcanzar los niveles de éxito deseado frente a este tipo de afecciones, que dependen de otros factores asociados a las condiciones de salud, la calidad de vida y la educación sanitaria.

Abstract This article aims at analyzing the evolution of mortality from waterborne diseases during the first decade of the 21st century, by age groups, comparing two countries of the southern cone: Argentina and Brazil. The method of years of potential life lost (YPLL) due to death, based on the technique described by Eduardo Arriaga, was used. For all death estimates, moving averages are used to establish two periods: 2000-2002 and 2009-2011. There is a general trend towards a reduction in mortality because of water-related diseases, both in Argentina and Brazil, with an average reduction rate of years of life lost close to 1% per year. This reduction is not uniform for all diseases related to this group of causes; in fact, there are causes that increase their mortality in the period studied, although most are epidemic outbreaks. On the other hand, the group of causes analyzed impacts more on the most vulnerable ages: those under 1 year old and those over 50 years old. The isolated interventions made on the hygiene of the water do not reach the levels of desired success by themselves considering this type of affections, that depend on other factors associated to the health conditions, the quality of life and the health education.

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Resumen Objetivo: Analizar el estado y la influencia de la variabilidad climática en la calidad del agua de un sistema de abastecimiento para consumo humano en San José, Costa Rica, captado en cuatro microcuencas del cantón Vásquez de Coronado, en el periodo 2017-2018, para brindar recomendaciones al operador y promover la protección de la población abastecida Métodos: Estudio descriptivo de los parámetros de calidad básicos de agua para consumo humano (Escherichia coli, coliformes fecales, turbidez, conductividad, pH, color, temperatura y cloro residual). Los análisis se realizaron siguiendo el Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. Se delimitaron las zonas de captación utilizando sistemas de información geográfica. Se utilizó estadística descriptiva e inferencial para describir la calidad del agua y su variabilidad espacial y estacional. Resultados: La concentración de coliformes fecales en el agua superficial fue > 103 NMP/100 mL y la turbidez >5 UTN en el 76% de las muestras. En la red de distribución se encontraron concentraciones de cloro residual y turbidez (>5 UTN) por encima de los límites recomendados para agua de consumo humano. Se encontró diferencias significativas en todos los parámetros básicos de calidad de agua entre las distintas zonas de captación (p<0,05 en todos los casos), así como entre épocas climáticas por zona de captación. Conclusión: Estos resultados indican que se está utilizando agua de calidad inadecuada para uso y consumo humano, por lo cual se recomienda un monitoreo intensivo y sectorizado de las fuentes para localizar puntos de contaminación.

Abstract Objective: Analyze the water quality and the influence of the climatic variability in supply system for the human consume in San José, Costa Rica, in four catchment areas in Vasquez of Coronado in the period 2017-2018 to give recommendations to the operator and promote the protection of the supplied population. Methods: Descriptive study of the basic parameters of the drinking water (Escherichia coli, fecal coliforms, turbidity, conductivity, pH, color, temperature, and residual chlorine). The analyses were done following Standard Methods for the examination of Water and Wastewater. The catchment areas were delimited using geographic information systems (GIS). Descriptive and inferential statistic was used to describe the water quality, spatial and seasonal variability. Results: The concentration of fecal coliforms in the catchment areas was >10 3 NMP/100 mL and the turbidity >5 UTN in 76% of the samples. In the distribution system were found concentrations of the residual chlorine and turbidity (>5 UTN) above according to recommended limits for drinking water in the country. The results showed significant differences in all of the basic parameters of the water quality between catchment areas (p<0, 05 in all cases) and between climatic periods for catchment areas. Conclusion: These results indicate that water of inadequate quality is being used for human use and consumption, for which reason intensive and sectorized source monitoring is recommended to locate contamination points.

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The relationship between rainfall, especially extreme rainfall, and increases in waterborne infectious diseases is widely reported in the literature. Most of this research, however, has not formally considered the impact of exposure measurement error contributed by the limited spatiotemporal fidelity of precipitation data. Here, we evaluate bias in effect estimates associated with exposure misclassification due to precipitation data fidelity, using extreme rainfall as an example. We accomplished this via a simulation study, followed by analysis of extreme rainfall and incident diarrheal disease in an epidemiologic study in Ecuador. We found that the limited fidelity typical of spatiotemporal rainfall data sets biases effect estimates towards the null. Use of spatial interpolations of rain-gauge data or satellite data biased estimated health effects due to extreme rainfall (occurrence) and wet conditions (accumulated totals) downwards by 35%-45%. Similar biases were evident in the Ecuadorian case study analysis, where spatial incompatibility between exposed populations and rain gauges resulted in the association between extreme rainfall and diarrheal disease incidence being approximately halved. These findings suggest that investigators should pay greater attention to limitations in using spatially heterogeneous environmental data sets to assign exposures in epidemiologic research.

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RESUMEN Objetivo Analizar los resultados del Índice de Riesgo de la Calidad del Agua para Consumo Humano (IRCA) para los 116 municipios del Departamento de Cundinamarca, del año 2007 a 2013. Materiales y Métodos Información recolectada de los 116 municipios del Departamento de Cundinamarca, seleccionados y clasificados en función de los datos porcentuales del IRCA. Resultados Se observa una disminución del promedio anual del IRCA, lo cual refleja un mejoramiento de la calidad del agua entregada en el departamento; sin embargo, un 26,7% de municipios no reportan información de la zona rural y un 56,9% de los municipios reportan un IRCA superior a 5, que aunque se ubican en Riesgo Bajo, son un agua no apta para consumo humano. Conclusiones Se propone una nueva ponderación de los parámetros evaluados en el IRCA, con el fin de permitir que este índice sea más representativo del riesgo a la salud y, como estudios futuros un análisis estadístico concienzudo sobre el tamaño de la muestra que permita que los resultados obtenidos sean confiables para los tomadores de decisiones sobre el mejoramiento de la calidad del agua potable.(AU)

ABSTRACT Objective To analyze the results of the Water Quality Risk Index (IRCA) in the 116 municipalities of the department of Cundinamarca, between 2007 and 2013. Materials and Methods Information collected from the 116 municipalities of the department of Cundinamarca, selected and classified according to the percentage data retrieved by IRCA. Results A decrease of the annual IRCA average is observed, which reflects an improvement of the water quality delivered in the department. However, 26.7% of the municipalities do not report information from their rural areas, and 56.9% of the municipalities report IRCA figures over 5, which means that even though they are at low risk, they receive water unfit for human consumption. Conclusions A new weighting method for the parameters evaluated with the IRCA is proposed to make this index more representative of the risk to health. In addition, future studies should carry out a thorough statistical analysis on the size of the sample that allows the obtained results to be reliable for decision makers to improve the quality of drinking water.(AU)

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RESUMO

Feces-contaminated water is a vehicle of transmission of potentially pathogenic microorganisms responsible for illnesses that represent main causes of death worldwide. A protocol for detection of intestinal parasites in great volumes of water was optimized. It includes: membrane filtration, mechanical agitation with detergent, centrifugation, chemical concentration with Mini Parasep® and microscopic examination. From samples of feces-contaminated water containing parasitic forms, a total recovery percentage of 85.7 percent of parasites was achieved after tests. This procedure provides a useful alternative method that could be subjected to validation as a routine methodology in the diagnosis of microbiological water quality(AU)

El agua contaminada con heces es un vehículo de transmisión de microorganismos potencialmente patógenos causantes de enfermedades que constituyen causas principales de muerte a nivel mundial. Se optimizó un protocolo para la detección de parásitos intestinales en grandes volúmenes de agua. Este incluye: filtración por membrana, agitación mecánica con detergente, centrifugación, concentración química con Mini Parasep® y examen microscópico.En muestras de agua contaminada con heces que contenían formas parasitarias, se obtuvo un porcentaje de recuperación total del 85.7 por ciento de estas formas después de aplicar el protocolo. El procedimiento constituye un método alternativo que podría someterse a validación como metodología habitual para el diagnóstico de la calidad microbiológica del agua(AU)

Assuntos