RESUMO
Viruses and their hosts have coevolved for a long time. This coevolution places both the pathogen and the human immune system under selective pressure; on the one hand, the immune system has evolved to combat viruses and virally infected cells, while viruses have developed sophisticated mechanisms to escape recognition and destruction by the immune system. SARS-CoV-2, the pathogen that is causing the current COVID-19 pandemic, has shown a remarkable ability to escape antibody neutralization, putting vaccine efficacy at risk. One of the virus's immune evasion strategies is mitochondrial sabotage: by causing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, mitochondrial physiology is impaired, and the interferon antiviral response is suppressed. Seminal studies have identified an intra-cytoplasmatic pathway for viral infection, which occurs through the construction of tunneling nanotubes (TNTs), hence enhancing infection and avoiding immune surveillance. Another method of evading immune monitoring is the disruption of the antigen presentation. In this scenario, SARS-CoV-2 infection reduces MHC-I molecule expression: SARS-CoV-2's open reading frames (ORF 6 and ORF 8) produce viral proteins that specifically downregulate MHC-I molecules. All of these strategies are also exploited by other viruses to elude immune detection and should be studied in depth to improve the effectiveness of future antiviral treatments. Compared to the Wuhan strain or the Delta variant, Omicron has developed mutations that have impaired its ability to generate syncytia, thus reducing its pathogenicity. Conversely, other mutations have allowed it to escape antibody neutralization and preventing cellular immune recognition, making it the most contagious and evasive variant to date.
RESUMO
A critical step in the life cycle of a virus is spread to a new target cell, which generally involves the release of new viral particles from the infected cell which can then initiate infection in the next target cell. While cell-free viral particles released into the extracellular environment are necessary for long distance spread, there are disadvantages to this mechanism. These include the presence of immune system components, the low success rate of infection by single particles, and the relative fragility of viral particles in the environment. Several mechanisms of direct cell-to-cell spread have been reported for animal viruses which would avoid the issues associated with cell-free particles. A number of viruses can utilize several different mechanisms of direct cell-to-cell spread, but our understanding of the differential usage by these pathogens is modest. Although the mechanisms of cell-to-cell spread differ among viruses, there is a common exploitation of key pathways and components of the cellular cytoskeleton. Remarkably, some of the viral mechanisms of cell-to-cell spread are surprisingly similar to those used by bacteria. Here we summarize the current knowledge of the conventional and non-conventional mechanisms of viral spread, the common methods used to detect viral spread, and the impact that these mechanisms can have on viral pathogenesis.
Assuntos
Células/virologia , Vírion/fisiologia , Fenômenos Fisiológicos Virais , Replicação Viral/fisiologia , Animais , Livros , Humanos , Vírus/patogenicidadeRESUMO
Landraces of the Solanum tuberosum Andigenum group are abundant and diverse. They are a valuable genetic resource possessing resistance to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. In the Andean region, populations of the false root-knot nematode Nacobbus aberrans became specialized to infect native potatoes, being one of the major limiting factors affecting this crop. A better understanding of the host plant-parasite interactions is important in order to select tolerant or resistant plants to be included in management programs. Despite the close of association of N. aberrans with potato, and the great diversity of the S. tuberosum Andigenum group, few histopathological studies have been conducted. The aim of this work was to analyze histological alterations induced by different Argentine populations of the nematode in naturally infested roots of four Andean potato varieties (Collareja, Negra Imilla, Ojo de Señorita and Colorada). All the varieties showed hyperplastic tissue in the central zone of galls, where syncytia developed in close association with the nematode female. Syncytia were composed of modified hyperplastic tissue and parenchyma xylem cells. The results showed differences among varieties in their response to nematode populations, with Ojo de Señorita and Negra Imilla being the most susceptible ones. This study is the first describing histopathological alterations induced by N. aberrans in susceptible Andean potato landraces.(AU)
As variedades de Solanum tuberosum grupo Andigenum são abundantes e diversas, além de serem uma fonte importante de recursos genéticos antea resistência de pragas, doenças e estresse ambiental. Na região andina, populações de Nacobbus aberrans se especializaram em parasitar batatas nativas e representam o principal fator limitante que afeta a produção desse cultivo. Um melhor entendimento da interação hospedeiro-parasita é importante para a seleção de plantas tolerantes ou resistentes a serem incluídas nos programas de manejo. Apesar da íntima associação de N. aberrans com a batata e a grande diversidade de S. tuberosum grupo Andigenum, os estudos histopatológicos desenvolvidos são limitados. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi analisar as alterações histológicas de raízes de quatro variedades de batata andina (Collareja, Negra Imilla, Ojo de Señorita e Colorada) parasitadas naturalmente por distintas populações argentinas do nematóide. Em todas as variedades se observou tecido hiperplásico na zona central das galhas onde, também, se desenvolveram os sincícios em íntima relação com as fêmeas do nematóide. Os sincícios estavam constituídos por tecido hiperplásico modificado e por células parenquimáticas do xilema. Os resultados mostraram diferenças entre as variedades de batata frente às populações do nematóide, sendo Ojo de Señorita e Negra Imilla as que evidenciaram maior susceptibilidade. Este estudo constitui a primeira avaliação da histopalogia induzida por N. aberrans em variedades suscetíveis de batata andina.(AU)
Assuntos
Solanum tuberosum/anatomia & histologia , Solanum tuberosum/parasitologia , Nematoides/patogenicidade , Argentina , Ecossistema AndinoRESUMO
Abstract Landraces of the Solanum tuberosum Andigenum group are abundant and diverse. They are a valuable genetic resource possessing resistance to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. In the Andean region, populations of the false root-knot nematode Nacobbus aberrans became specialized to infect native potatoes, being one of the major limiting factors affecting this crop. A better understanding of the host plant-parasite interactions is important in order to select tolerant or resistant plants to be included in management programs. Despite the close of association of N. aberrans with potato, and the great diversity of the S. tuberosum Andigenum group, few histopathological studies have been conducted. The aim of this work was to analyze histological alterations induced by different Argentine populations of the nematode in naturally infested roots of four Andean potato varieties (Collareja, Negra Imilla, Ojo de Señorita and Colorada). All the varieties showed hyperplastic tissue in the central zone of galls, where syncytia developed in close association with the nematode female. Syncytia were composed of modified hyperplastic tissue and parenchyma xylem cells. The results showed differences among varieties in their response to nematode populations, with Ojo de Señorita and Negra Imilla being the most susceptible ones. This study is the first describing histopathological alterations induced by N. aberrans in susceptible Andean potato landraces.
Resumo As variedades de Solanum tuberosum grupo Andigenum são abundantes e diversas, além de serem uma fonte importante de recursos genéticos antea resistência de pragas, doenças e estresse ambiental. Na região andina, populações de Nacobbus aberrans se especializaram em parasitar batatas nativas e representam o principal fator limitante que afeta a produção desse cultivo. Um melhor entendimento da interação hospedeiro-parasita é importante para a seleção de plantas tolerantes ou resistentes a serem incluídas nos programas de manejo. Apesar da íntima associação de N. aberrans com a batata e a grande diversidade de S. tuberosum grupo Andigenum, os estudos histopatológicos desenvolvidos são limitados. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi analisar as alterações histológicas de raízes de quatro variedades de batata andina (Collareja, Negra Imilla, Ojo de Señorita e Colorada) parasitadas naturalmente por distintas populações argentinas do nematóide. Em todas as variedades se observou tecido hiperplásico na zona central das galhas onde, também, se desenvolveram os sincícios em íntima relação com as fêmeas do nematóide. Os sincícios estavam constituídos por tecido hiperplásico modificado e por células parenquimáticas do xilema. Os resultados mostraram diferenças entre as variedades de batata frente às populações do nematóide, sendo Ojo de Señorita e Negra Imilla as que evidenciaram maior susceptibilidade. Este estudo constitui a primeira avaliação da histopalogia induzida por N. aberrans em variedades suscetíveis de batata andina.
Assuntos
Animais , Solanum tuberosum/parasitologia , Interações Hospedeiro-Parasita , Nematoides/patogenicidade , Solanum tuberosum/ultraestruturaRESUMO
Abstract Landraces of the Solanum tuberosum Andigenum group are abundant and diverse. They are a valuable genetic resource possessing resistance to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. In the Andean region, populations of the false root-knot nematode Nacobbus aberrans became specialized to infect native potatoes, being one of the major limiting factors affecting this crop. A better understanding of the host plant-parasite interactions is important in order to select tolerant or resistant plants to be included in management programs. Despite the close of association of N. aberrans with potato, and the great diversity of the S. tuberosum Andigenum group, few histopathological studies have been conducted. The aim of this work was to analyze histological alterations induced by different Argentine populations of the nematode in naturally infested roots of four Andean potato varieties (Collareja, Negra Imilla, Ojo de Señorita and Colorada). All the varieties showed hyperplastic tissue in the central zone of galls, where syncytia developed in close association with the nematode female. Syncytia were composed of modified hyperplastic tissue and parenchyma xylem cells. The results showed differences among varieties in their response to nematode populations, with Ojo de Señorita and Negra Imilla being the most susceptible ones. This study is the first describing histopathological alterations induced by N. aberrans in susceptible Andean potato landraces.
Resumo As variedades de Solanum tuberosum grupo Andigenum são abundantes e diversas, além de serem uma fonte importante de recursos genéticos antea resistência de pragas, doenças e estresse ambiental. Na região andina, populações de Nacobbus aberrans se especializaram em parasitar batatas nativas e representam o principal fator limitante que afeta a produção desse cultivo. Um melhor entendimento da interação hospedeiro-parasita é importante para a seleção de plantas tolerantes ou resistentes a serem incluídas nos programas de manejo. Apesar da íntima associação de N. aberrans com a batata e a grande diversidade de S. tuberosum grupo Andigenum, os estudos histopatológicos desenvolvidos são limitados. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi analisar as alterações histológicas de raízes de quatro variedades de batata andina (Collareja, Negra Imilla, Ojo de Señorita e Colorada) parasitadas naturalmente por distintas populações argentinas do nematóide. Em todas as variedades se observou tecido hiperplásico na zona central das galhas onde, também, se desenvolveram os sincícios em íntima relação com as fêmeas do nematóide. Os sincícios estavam constituídos por tecido hiperplásico modificado e por células parenquimáticas do xilema. Os resultados mostraram diferenças entre as variedades de batata frente às populações do nematóide, sendo Ojo de Señorita e Negra Imilla as que evidenciaram maior susceptibilidade. Este estudo constitui a primeira avaliação da histopalogia induzida por N. aberrans em variedades suscetíveis de batata andina.
RESUMO
OBJECTIVE: Syncytia formation is the hallmark of the cytopathic effect caused by human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV), which is the most important viral respiratory pathogen in children. This article reports methodological improvements in primary HRSV isolation and the importance of syncytia formation and mRNA levels of F protein for the progeny yield, using clinical isolates of HRSV. METHODS: The A and B strains of HRSV were isolated in HEp-2 cell cultures from fresh and frozen nasopharyngeal aspirates. The formation of syncytia was evaluated using 2 different assays. Levels of F protein mRNA were quantified by real-time PCR while HRSV progeny titration was done by plaque assay. RESULTS: HRSV was primarily isolated from 238 of 312 (90.7%) samples, and 13 of these (12 HRSV-A and 1 HRSV-B) were continuously passaged in vitro. The quantity and size of syncytia formed by 6 pure HRSV-A clinical isolates were different, as were the levels of F protein mRNA. CONCLUSION: There is a direct correlation of quantities of syncytia and inoculum size, but not with mRNA levels of HRSV-A F protein. Importantly, levels of F protein mRNA were directly related to progeny production.
Assuntos
Efeito Citopatogênico Viral , Células Gigantes/ultraestrutura , Infecções por Vírus Respiratório Sincicial/virologia , Vírus Sincicial Respiratório Humano/isolamento & purificação , Vírus Sincicial Respiratório Humano/fisiologia , Linhagem Celular , Criança , Células Gigantes/virologia , Humanos , Nasofaringe/virologia , Filogenia , RNA Viral/análise , Reação em Cadeia da Polimerase em Tempo Real , Vírus Sincicial Respiratório Humano/classificação , Vírus Sincicial Respiratório Humano/genética , Proteínas Virais de Fusão/análise , Virologia/métodosRESUMO
Abstract Landraces of the Solanum tuberosum Andigenum group are abundant and diverse. They are a valuable genetic resource possessing resistance to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. In the Andean region, populations of the false root-knot nematode Nacobbus aberrans became specialized to infect native potatoes, being one of the major limiting factors affecting this crop. A better understanding of the host plant-parasite interactions is important in order to select tolerant or resistant plants to be included in management programs. Despite the close of association of N. aberrans with potato, and the great diversity of the S. tuberosum Andigenum group, few histopathological studies have been conducted. The aim of this work was to analyze histological alterations induced by different Argentine populations of the nematode in naturally infested roots of four Andean potato varieties (Collareja, Negra Imilla, Ojo de Señorita and Colorada). All the varieties showed hyperplastic tissue in the central zone of galls, where syncytia developed in close association with the nematode female. Syncytia were composed of modified hyperplastic tissue and parenchyma xylem cells. The results showed differences among varieties in their response to nematode populations, with Ojo de Señorita and Negra Imilla being the most susceptible ones. This study is the first describing histopathological alterations induced by N. aberrans in susceptible Andean potato landraces.
Resumo As variedades de Solanum tuberosum grupo Andigenum são abundantes e diversas, além de serem uma fonte importante de recursos genéticos antea resistência de pragas, doenças e estresse ambiental. Na região andina, populações de Nacobbus aberrans se especializaram em parasitar batatas nativas e representam o principal fator limitante que afeta a produção desse cultivo. Um melhor entendimento da interação hospedeiro-parasita é importante para a seleção de plantas tolerantes ou resistentes a serem incluídas nos programas de manejo. Apesar da íntima associação de N. aberrans com a batata e a grande diversidade de S. tuberosum grupo Andigenum, os estudos histopatológicos desenvolvidos são limitados. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi analisar as alterações histológicas de raízes de quatro variedades de batata andina (Collareja, Negra Imilla, Ojo de Señorita e Colorada) parasitadas naturalmente por distintas populações argentinas do nematóide. Em todas as variedades se observou tecido hiperplásico na zona central das galhas onde, também, se desenvolveram os sincícios em íntima relação com as fêmeas do nematóide. Os sincícios estavam constituídos por tecido hiperplásico modificado e por células parenquimáticas do xilema. Os resultados mostraram diferenças entre as variedades de batata frente às populações do nematóide, sendo Ojo de Señorita e Negra Imilla as que evidenciaram maior susceptibilidade. Este estudo constitui a primeira avaliação da histopalogia induzida por N. aberrans em variedades suscetíveis de batata andina.
RESUMO
Transfer cells are ubiquitous plant cells that play an important role in plant development as well as in responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. They are highly specialized and differentiated cells playing a central role in the acquisition, distribution and exchange of nutrients. Their unique structural traits are characterized by augmented ingrowths of invaginated secondary wall material, unsheathed by an amplified area of plasma membrane enriched in a suite of solute transporters. Similar morphological features can be perceived in vascular root feeding cells induced by sedentary plant-parasitic nematodes, such as root-knot and cyst nematodes, in a wide range of plant hosts. Despite their close phylogenetic relationship, these obligatory biotrophic plant pathogens engage different approaches when reprogramming root cells into giant cells or syncytia, respectively. Both nematode feeding-cells types will serve as the main source of nutrients until the end of the nematode life cycle. In both cases, these nematodes are able to remarkably maneuver and reprogram plant host cells. In this review we will discuss the structure, function and formation of these specialized multinucleate cells that act as nutrient transfer cells accumulating and synthesizing components needed for survival and successful offspring of plant-parasitic nematodes. Plant cells with transfer-like functions are also a renowned subject of interest involving still poorly understood molecular and cellular transport processes.