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Background: Over the past decade, environmental DNA (eDNA) has become a resourceful tool in conservation and biomonitoring. Environmental DNA has been applied in a variety of environments, but the application to studies of marine fish, particularly at tropical latitudes, are limited. Since many commercially important Caribbean fishes are overexploited, these species are optimal candidates to explore the use of this method as a biomonitoring tool. Specifically, for many of these species, the formation of fish spawning aggregations (FSAs) marks a critical life history event where fishes will gather in large numbers for reproduction. These FSAs are ephemeral in nature, lasting only a few days, but are predictable in time and space which makes them susceptible to overfishing. Methods: In this study, we test the feasibility of using an eDNA sampling approach (water and sediment collection) to detect the presence of known FSAs off the west coast of Puerto Rico, with cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) and 12S rRNA (12S) primers designed to target specific species. A total of 290 eDNA samples were collected and, of those, 206 eDNA samples were processed. All eDNA samples varied in DNA concentration, both between replicates and collection methods. A total of 12 primer sets were developed and tested using traditional PCR and qPCR. Results: Despite validation of primer accuracy and sample collection during known peak spawning times, the use of traditional PCR and qPCR with both molecular markers failed to produce species-specific amplification. Thus, a trial test was conducted using the CO1 primers in which target fish DNA was 'spiked' at various concentrations into the respective eDNA samples to determine the target species DNA concentration limit of detection. Upon successful amplification of the trial, results indicated that eDNA samples were below the detection threshold of our methods, suggesting that the number of fish present at the spawning aggregations was inadequate for single-species detection methods. In addition, elements such as the unavoidable presence of non-target DNA, oceanic environmental conditions, shedding rates of target fish, among other biotic and abiotic factors could have affected DNA persistence and degradation rates at the sites. Conclusion: We provide recommendations for species-specific fish detection in lower latitudes, and suggestions for studies aiming to monitor or detect fish spawning aggregations using eDNA sampling.

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The vulnerability of a fish stock to becoming overfished is dependent upon biological traits that influence productivity and external factors that determine susceptibility or exposure to fishing effort. While a suite of life history traits are traditionally incorporated into management efforts due to their direct association with vulnerability to overfishing, spawning behavioral traits are seldom considered. We synthesized the existing biological and fisheries information of 28 fish stocks in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico to investigate relationships between life history traits, spawning behavioral traits, management regulations, and vulnerability to fishing during the spawning season. Our results showed that spawning behavioral traits were not correlated with life history traits but improved identification of species that have been historically overfished. Species varied widely in their intrinsic vulnerability to fishing during spawning in association with a broad range of behavioral strategies. Extrinsic vulnerability was high for nearly all species due to exposure to fishing during the spawning season and few management measures in place to protect spawning fish. Similarly, several species with the highest vulnerability scores were historically overfished in association with spawning aggregations. The most vulnerable species included several stocks that have not been assessed and should be prioritized for further research and monitoring. Collectively, the results of this study illustrate that spawning behavior is a distinct aspect of fish ecology that is important to consider for predictions of vulnerability and resilience to fisheries exploitation.

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Here we describe massive spawning aggregations and seasonal changes in the large-scale distribution of the Patagonian grouper Acanthistius patachonicus in the Southwest Atlantic based on three sources of information: (a) data from bottom trawl research surveys covering the distributional range of the species within the Argentine continental shelf; (b) folk ecological knowledge gathered from experienced captains of the Argentine industrial trawl fisheries; and (c) sampling of an artisanal trap fishery targeting the Patagonian grouper in a specific location off the coast of Buenos Aires Province. The trawl surveys showed a general pattern of aggregation of Patagonian grouper towards the coast during the reproductive period (September-December). Captains described massive aggregations of the species at specific near-shore locations, where trawl catches of up to 15 t in a single haul were registered during the reproductive season. At a local scale, the artisanal trap fishery described operates exclusively during the reproductive period, targeting near-shore aggregations with a high proportion of individuals releasing gametes onboard. These three sources of information provide evidence of the existence of massive transient spawning aggregations of Patagonian grouper in the Argentine shelf. This is the first report of a reef fish spawning aggregation in the southern region of the Southwest Atlantic. Anecdotal information gathered in this study points to the depletion of many of the aggregations targeted during the 1980s and 1990s by the industrial fleet. At the same time, the spawning aggregation site off Buenos Aires Province has been productive for the last 34 years, being exploited exclusively by traps. The Patagonian grouper is classified as Data Deficient by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, which highlights the need for further research to determine its stock status. Mapping its current spawning aggregations should be a priority to inform the design of a targeted monitoring program and management plan for this species.

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The Grammanik bank is a deep reef (35-40 m) located approximately 14 km south of St. Thomas USVI, on the southern edge of the Puerto Rico shelf. The relatively narrow 1.5 km long reef annually hosts spawning aggregations of several species of groupers, snappers and jacks. Until February of 2005, when temporary seasonal protection was offered by the Caribbean Fisheries Management Council, the bank was subject to moderate or heavy exploitation from fishers. Cubera snapper (Lutjanus cyanopterus) were observed aggregating on the Grammanik bank in relatively large numbers from 2003 to 2005 and dog snapper (L. jocu) aggregations were observed in 2005. The arrival and departure of these aggregations appeared to be seasonal and to revolve around the moon phase. Cubera snapper spawning seasonality coincided with that elsewhere in the Caribbean and off south Florida. Schools of up to 1000 fish of each species were observed as well as pre-spawning behavior and milt release. Aggregations of both species showed high site fidelity within seasons but cubera snapper aggregations sites moved between seasons. The authors recommend year-round closure of the Grammanik bank based on its importance as critical fish habitat and a multi-species aggregation area. Rev. Biol. Trop. 54 (Suppl. 3): 69-78. Epub 2007 Jan. 15.

El banco Grammanik es un arrecife profundo (35-40 m) ubicado aproximadamente 14 km al Sur de St. Thomas (Islas Vírgenes EUA), en el límite sur de la plataforma de Puerto Rico. Este arrecife relativamente angosto y de 1.5 km de longitud, recibe anualmente agrupaciones de varias especies de meros, pargos y jureles, durante sus desoves. Fue objeto de explotación de moderada a alta por parte de los pescadores hasta febrero del 2005, cuando el Consejo de Pesca del Caribe le ofreció protección temporal. El pargo cubera (Lutjanus cyanopterus) fue observado en el banco Grammanik en agrupaciones numerosas entre el año 2003 y el 2005, a su vez, agrupaciones del pargo perro o pargo caucha (L. jocu) se observaron en el 2005. La llegada y partida de estos grupos parece ser estacional y estar relacionada con la fase lunar. El desove estacional del pargo cubera coincide con informes de otros sitios del Caribe y al Sur de la Florida, donde se observaron cardúmenes de hasta 1000 peces de cada especie, así como comportamientos previos al desove y liberación de esperma. Agrupaciones de ambas especies mostraron alta fidelidad al sitio en una misma estación, pero los sitios de agrupación del pargo cubera cambiaron entre estaciones. Los autores recomiendan el cierre del banco Gammanik durante todo el año, basados en su importancia como hábitat crítico para los peces y por ser un área de agrupación para múltiples especies.

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