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The concept of pain encompasses a complex interplay of sensory and emotional experiences associated with actual or potential tissue damage. Accurately describing and localizing pain, whether acute or chronic, mild or severe, poses a challenge due to its diverse manifestations. Understanding the underlying origins and mechanisms of these pain variations is crucial for effective management and pharmacological interventions. Derived from a wide spectrum of species, including snakes, arthropods, mollusks, and vertebrates, animal venoms have emerged as abundant repositories of potential biomolecules exhibiting analgesic properties across a broad spectrum of pain models. This review focuses on highlighting the most promising venom-derived toxins investigated as potential prototypes for analgesic drugs. The discussion further encompasses research prospects, challenges in advancing analgesics, and the practical application of venom-derived toxins. As the field continues its evolution, tapping into the latent potential of these natural bioactive compounds holds the key to pioneering approaches in pain management and treatment. Therefore, animal toxins present countless possibilities for treating pain caused by different diseases. The development of new analgesic drugs from toxins is one of the directions that therapy must follow, and it seems to be moving forward by recommending the composition of multimodal therapy to combat pain.

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Pain can be defined as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience caused by either actual or potential tissue damage or even resemble that unpleasant experience. For years, science has sought to find treatment alternatives, with minimal side effects, to relieve pain. However, the currently available pharmacological options on the market show significant adverse events. Therefore, the search for a safer and highly efficient analgesic treatment has become a priority. Stem cells (SCs) are non-specialized cells with a high capacity for replication, self-renewal, and a wide range of differentiation possibilities. In this review, we provide evidence that the immune and neuromodulatory properties of SCs can be a valuable tool in the search for ideal treatment strategies for different types of pain. With the advantage of multiple administration routes and dosages, therapies based on SCs for pain relief have demonstrated meaningful results with few downsides. Nonetheless, there are still more questions than answers when it comes to the mechanisms and pathways of pain targeted by SCs. Thus, this is an evolving field that merits further investigation towards the development of SC-based analgesic therapies, and this review will approach all of these aspects.

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ABSTRACT BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The increasingly widespread use of cannabinoids in the management of acute and chronic pain generates an urgent need to study how cannabinoids act on CB1 and CB2 receptors and what their effects are on the organism. It is important to understand the difference in action between natural cannabinoids (cannabidiol, delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabigerol, cannabinoil, terpenes) and synthetic ones, so that the appropriate choice is made in each case, and depending on the pathophysiology of pain, one or the other active is more indicated. CONTENTS: Studies collected in the Pubmed, Cochrane Library and Web of Science databases were analyzed. These studies focus were on natural cannabinoids (cannabidiol, delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabigerol, cannabinoil, terpenes) and synthetic cannabinoids in the use for the treatment of chronic pain, their action on the endocannabinoid system through the activation of the CB1 and CB2 receptor and their effect after activating this receptor, aiming to compile which cannabinoid is more indicated in the treatment of pain pathology. CONCLUSION: The subject still requires much study and new articles are being published daily. The analysis of the studies must be carried out with criteria to evaluate their seriousness. The endocannabinoid system is closely linked to the treatment of chronic pain and some cannabinoids such as: cannabidiol, delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabigerol, cannabinoil, as well as some terpenes are already considered important in the treatment of chronic pain inferring sparing effect of opioids, anticonvulsants, antidepressants among others.

RESUMO JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: O uso cada vez mais disseminado dos canabinoides no controle da dor aguda e crônica gera uma necessidade urgente do estudo de como os canabinoides agem nos receptores CB1 e CB2 e quais seus efeitos no organismo. É importante entender a diferença de ação entre os canabinoides naturais (canabidiol, delta 9-tetrahidrocanabinol, canabigerol, canabinol, terpenos) e os sintéticos, para que a escolha adequada seja realizada em cada caso, sendo que dependendo da fisiopatologia da dor é mais indicado um ou outro ativo. CONTEÚDO: Foram analisados estudos coletados na Pubmed, Cochrane Library e Web of Science. Os estudos se concentram em canabinoides naturais (canabidiol, delta 9-tetrahidrocanabinol, canabigerol, canabinoil, terpenos) e canabinoides sintéticos no uso para o tratamento da dor crônica, sua ação no sistema endocanabinoide através da ativação do receptor CB1 e CB2 e seu efeito após ativar esse receptor, visando compilar qual canabinoide é mais indicado no tratamento da patologia álgica. CONCLUSÃO: O assunto ainda requer muito estudo e diariamente novos artigos vem sendo publicados. A análise dos estudos deve ser realizada com critério para avaliar sua seriedade. O sistema endocanabinoide está intimamente ligado ao tratamento da dor crônica e alguns canabinoides como: canabidiol, delta 9-tetrahidrocanabinol, canabigerol, canabinoil, assim como alguns terpenos já são considerados importantes no tratamento da dor crônica inferindo efeito poupador de opioides, anticonvulsivantes, antidepressivos entre outros.

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Abstract Objective To comparatively evaluate the outcome of treatment with 150 versus 200 units (U) of botulinum toxin in achieving pain-free intercourse and relieving muscle contraction in order to allow gynecological examination. Methods In this comparative prospective observational study, 99 patients with vaginismus were treated with botulinum toxin injections from September 2016 to August 2021. Diagnosis and grading of vaginismus severity were assessed using a Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) questionnaire. Under local or general anesthesia, botulinum toxin diluted with preservative-free saline (150 U and 200 U) was injected into, above, and below the right and left bulbospongiosus muscle and the lateral submucosal areas of the introitus and perineal body using an insulin syringe. Patients were recalled after 2 weeks, and the postoperative outcome was recorded using a similar preoperative questionnaire. Results Overall, the mean age of patients was 30.2 years. The baseline and clinical characteristics were comparable between the 2 groups (p > 0.05). Significant improvements were seen in the pain and anxiety scores of finger penetration, dilator use, intercourse, and cotton swab in individual groups. The intergroup comparisons between 150 U and 200 U of Botox were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Conclusion Low-dose Botox (150 U) is equally effective as high dose Botox injections (200 U) in vaginismus patients. Therefore, Botox-150 U can be used to treat vaginismus as an alternative to high doses of the same substance.

Resumo Objetivo Avaliar comparativamente o resultado do tratamento com 150 versus 200 unidades (U) de toxina botulínica na obtenção de relações sexuais sem dor e no alívio da contração muscular para permitir o exame ginecológico. Métodos Neste estudo observacional prospectivo comparativo, 99 pacientes com vaginismo foram tratadas com injeções de toxina botulínica de setembro de 2016 a agosto de 2021. O diagnóstico e a classificação da gravidade do vaginismo foram avaliados usando um questionário Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI). Sob anestesia local ou geral, injetou-se toxina botulínica diluída em soro fisiológico sem conservantes (150 U e 200 U) nos músculos bulbo esponjoso direito e esquerdo e nas áreas submucosas laterais do intróito e corpo perineal, utilizando-se uma seringa de insulina. Os pacientes foram chamados após 2 semanas, e o resultado pós-operatório foi registrado usando um questionário pré-operatório semelhante. Resultados No geral, a média de idade dos pacientes foi de 30,2 anos. As características basais e clínicas foram comparáveis entre os 2 grupos (p > 0,05). Melhorias significativas foram observadas nos escores de dor e ansiedade à penetração com dedo, uso de dilatador, relação sexual e cotonete em grupos individuais. As comparações intergrupos entre 150 U e 200 U Botox foram não estatisticamente significativas (p > 0,05). Conclusão Botox de baixa dose (150 U) é tão eficaz quanto injeções de Botox de alta dose (200 U) em pacientes com vaginismo. Portanto, o Botox-150 U pode ser usado para tratar o vaginismo como alternativa às altas doses da mesma substância.

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Despite the availability of many anti-pain drugs, in the form of NSAIDs, steroids, gabapentinoids, opioids, and antidepressants, in this study we address the natural compounds belonging to the group of Mexican medicinal plants or "Mexican folk medicine", used for pain management in Mexico. Our interest in this subject is due to the growing idea that "natural is harmless" and to the large number of side effects exhibited in pharmacotherapy. The objective of this review was to document the scientific evidence about Mexican medicinal plants and their derivatives used for inflammatory and neuropathic pain treatment, as well as the mechanisms of action implicated in their antinociceptive effects, their possible adverse effects, and the main pharmacological aspects of each plant or compound. Our data review suggested that most studies on Mexican medicinal plants have used inflammatory experimental models for testing. The anti-pain properties exerted by medicinal plants lack adverse effects, and their toxicological assays report that they are safe to consume; therefore, more studies should be performed on preclinical neuropathic pain models. Moreover, there is no convincing evidence about the possible mechanisms of action involved in the anti-pain properties exerted by Mexican plants. Therefore, the isolation and pharmacological characterization of these plant derivatives' compounds will be important in the design of future preclinical studies.

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Analgesic efficacy of methadone in cancer and chronic non-cancer pains is greater than that of other opioids, probably because of its unique pharmacokinetics properties and also because it targets glutamatergic receptors in addition to µ-opioid receptors. However, methadone has drawbacks which are clearly related to dosing and treatment duration. The authors hypothesized that the antinociceptive efficacy of methadone could be synergistically potentiated by magnesium and copper salts in a preclinical mouse model of chronic pain, using the intraplantar formalin test as algesimetric tool. The spared nerve injury mice model was used to generate mononeuropathy. A low dose (0.25%) formalin was injected in the neuropathic limb in order to give rise only to Phase I response, resulting from direct activation by formalin of nociceptive primary afferents. Licking/biting of the formalin-injected limb was evaluated as nociceptive behavior during a 35-min observation period. Dose-response curves for intraperitoneal magnesium sulfate (10, 30, 100, and 300 mg/kg i.p.), copper sulfate (0.1, 0.3, 1, and 3 mg/kg i.p.) and methadone (0.1, 0.3, 1, and 3 mg/kg i.p.) allowed to combine them in equieffective doses and to determine their interaction by isobolographic analysis. Magnesium sulfate, copper sulfate and methadone dose-dependently decreased the nociceptive response evoked by formalin injection, the respective ED50 being 76.38, 1.18, and 0.50 mg/kg i.p. Isobolographic analysis showed a superadditive interaction for magnesium and methadone. Indeed, despite that both ED50 are obviously equieffective, the ED50 for the MgSO4/methadone combination contained less than one third of the methadone having the ED50 for methadone alone. For the CuSO4/methadone combination, the interaction was only additive. Extrapolated to clinical settings, the results suggest that magnesium salts might be used to improve synergistically the efficacy of methadone in neuropathy, which would allow to reduce the dose of methadone and its associated side effects.

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ABSTRACT BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Non-obstetric causes of pain during pregnancy are very common and can be disabling if not treated properly. The objective of this study is to discuss the pharmacological treatment of pain during pregnancy with a focus on drug classification and pregnancy use, therapy options, teratogenicity, increased fetal malformations and gestational complications associated with the use of therapy CONTENTS: During pregnancy, the body goes through several anatomical and physiological changes. These changes can precipitate pain, which in some cases can lead to disability. In addition, pregnancy may exacerbate pre-existing painful conditions. The choice to prescribe a drug to a pregnant woman is difficult. The changes in the body of a pregnant woman influence drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, and may alter the expected response. CONCLUSION: The risks and benefits of the drug for the mother and the child should be considered, weighing the risks of not treating the disease adequately during pregnancy.

RESUMO JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: As causas não obstétricas de dor durante a gravidez são muito comuns e podem ser incapacitantes se não forem tratadas adequadamente. O objetivo deste estudo foi discutir o tratamento farmacológico da dor durante o período gestacional com foco na classificação de fármacos e o uso na gravidez, opções de terapia, teratogenicidade, aumento de malformações fetais e complicações gestacionais associados ao uso da terapia. CONTEÚDO: Durante a gravidez, várias alterações anatômicas e fisiológicas ocorrem no corpo. Essas alterações podem precipitar a dor, que em alguns casos pode levar à incapacidade. Além disso, a gravidez pode exacerbar condições dolorosas pré-existentes. A escolha de prescrever um fármaco para uma gestante é difícil. As alterações gravídicas no corpo da gestante influem na absorção, distribuição, metabolismo e excreção dos fármacos, podendo alterar a resposta esperada. CONCLUSÃO: Deve-se considerar os riscos e benefícios do uso do fármaco para a mãe e filho, pesando-se os riscos de não tratar adequadamente a doença durante a gestação.

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OBJECTIVES: Previous studies demonstrated significant improvement in mean pain scores and quality of life (QOL) scales in patients with chronic pain who underwent spinal cord stimulation (SCS). However, the number of individuals who experience relevant improvements in QOL, termed the meaningful clinical improvement (MCI), is not known. The present study investigated changes in pain measurements based on MCI after SCS. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty-four patients with chronic intractable pain completed scales of pain (visual analogue scale [VAS]), QOL (SF-36), and psychological dimensions during a 22-month follow-up period (mean). Patient-centered MCI of the VAS and SF-36 domain scores were determined based on the MacNab criteria of surgical global effectiveness. Independent presurgical predictors for MCI in the VAS and SF-36 domains were analyzed using multiple binary logistic regression. RESULTS: There was significant improvement of pain and QOL after the SCS (p < 0.00001). Twenty-three patients (67.6%) reached an MCI of pain, and 16 (47.7%)-23 (67.7%) reported an MCI of QOL. Predictors of MCI included ≥80% paresthesia coverage of the painful area, lower levels of anxiety and catastrophizing symptoms, shorter pain duration, female gender and no use of opioids before surgery. MCI of pain and QOL was observed in 50%-70% of patients with chronic pain after SCS. CONCLUSIONS: The identification of determinants for MCI is a challenge to improve the accuracy of prognostic models in SCS for patients with chronic pain. Our results, if confirmed in other populations with a larger sample size, have implications for patients with chronic pain who are candidates for SCS treatment.

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INTRODUCTION: Microemulsions are thermodynamically stable translucent systems widely used for systemic delivery of drugs. The present study is the first to analyze the biotechnological potential of microemulsion systems for therapeutic purposes, through transdermal route, for pain treatment. AREAS COVERED: Patents were searched in the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), European Patent Office (Espacenet), United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and National Institute of Intellectual Property (INPI). The inclusion criteria were published patents containing the keywords; 'microemulsion' and 'transdermal' in their title or abstract. 208 patents were found. However, only those patents which mentioned in their abstract or in their description the use of microemulsion system (object of invention) for pain treatment were selected. Were excluded duplicate patents and those that did not report pharmacological use of MEs specifically for pain treatment. Thus, sixteen patents were selected and described in the present study. EXPERT OPINION: Patents were found that focused specifically on the development process of microemulsion systems, the inclusion of essential oils in microemulsions, which place microemulsions as delivery systems for NSAIDs and other substances, as well as microemulsions for transdermal administration. These studies reinforce the therapeutic applicability of MEs in the treatment of acute and chronic pain.

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A dor crônica (DC) é uma experiência sensorial e emocional desagradável e é definida por períodos contínuos ou persistentes de dor superior a três meses de duração. A classificação da DC, por seu mecanismo, permite um manejo mais adequado e eficiente. O presente trabalho objetiva revisar esta visão e analisar aspectos concernentes à essa questão.

Chronic pain (CP) is a multidimensional sensation with intrinsically unpleasant experiences. It is associated to uninterrupted or persistent periods of pain superior to e three months. CP is classified according to its mechanism, and this distinction is important to make the appropriate management of the condition. The goal of this assessment is to review such concept.

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INTRODUCTION: Neuropathic pain (NP) is one of the most important health problems faced nowadays. NP is a chronic disease that cannot be treated like other pain conditions because it is developed from a nerve injury that evolves into a permanent dysfunction of the central and/or peripheral nervous system. Therefore, it involves the participation of several systems and should be viewed as a multi-factorial disease that needs a whole new pharmacological strategy in order to achieve the desired pain relief. Areas covered: The Espacenet site was used as the main source in order to perform the patent research for NP treatment. This review covers the patents with relevant approaches for NP treatment from 2014 until today. Expert opinion: Our patent research has shown that there is not a consensus approach to treat NP in any of its forms. In our opinion, the approach regarding NP needs to be like cancer's approach. As there are different types of cancer and different ways to treat them, the same needs to be done for NP. Currently, there are several promising targets, which corroborates that this is a wide-open research area. For these reasons, neuropathic pain is a therapeutic field full of potential for innovation.

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ABSTRACT Pro-inflammatory cytokines and glial cells, especially microglial cells, have been implicated in persistent pain sensitization. Less is known about the role of astrocytes in pain regulation. This study aimed to observe the expression of the astrocytic biomarker glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and the serum levels of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1ß) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) after short-term administration of central pain relievers in rats not submitted to noxious stimuli. Male Wistar rats were divided into five groups, receiving for nine days- (1) amitriptyline (Amt-10 mg/kg/day, by gavage); (2) gabapentin (Gb-60 mg/kg/day, by gavage; (3) methadone (Me-4.5 mg/kg/day, intraperitoneal route [IP]); (4) morphine (Mo-10 mg/kg/day, IP); or (5) 0.9% saline solution, IP. Brain samples were collected for immunohistochemical study of GFAP expression in the mesencephalon and nucleus accumbens (NAc). The area of GFAP-positive cells was calculated using MetaMorph software and serum levels of IL-1ß and TNF-α were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Serum TNF-α levels were decreased in the groups treated with Mo, Me and Gb, but not in the Amt-treated group. IL-1ß decreased only in rats treated with Me. The astrocytic expression of GFAP was decreased in the brainstem with all drugs, while it was increased in the NAc with Amt, Me and Mo

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Introdução: A dor crônica em hanseníase tem um papel importante por ser responsável pelo sofrimento físico e psicológico que produz. Objetivos: Avaliar a presença e as características de dor neuropática nas pessoas que tiveram hanseníase. Casuística e métodos: Oitenta e cinco (n=85) pacientes que completaram tratamento para hanseníase com PQT/OMS foram avaliados para dor neuropática por meio do teste Douleur Neuropathic 4 (DN4). Criterioso questionário e exame neurológico foram aplicados para complementar os dados. Resultados: Quarenta e oito pacientes foram excluídos por não apresentarem dor ou por se referirem a ela apenas no passado. Dos 37 pacientes com dor confirmou-se que 22 (59,5%) tinham dor neuropática ou mista e destes, 70,8% caracterizavam esta dor como de intensidade moderada ou grave, sendo que 81,8% sofriam por um período maior que 6 meses. Apenas 12 (54,5%) pacientes haviam sido diagnosticados com o problema e quase metade dos casos - 10 (45,5%) ainda estavam sem reconhecimento. Quanto ao tratamento medicamentoso (n=12) para a dor neuropática, apenas 5 (41,6%) responderam que tiveram melhora, os outros 7 (58,4%) ficaram igual ou pioraram comparado ao quadro inicial. A análise estatística comparando a melhora da dor entre os tratados - 12 pacientes, e os não tratados - 10 pacientes é significante (valor de p = 0,020). Conclusão: A dor neuropática é causa importante de sofrimento no pacientes com hanseníase e mesmo assim é negligenciada pela equipe médica que tem dificuldade em diagnosticá-la. O adequado reconhecimento e tratamento desta condição podem aliviar sintomas e melhorar a qualidade de vida destes pacientes.

Introduction: Chronic pain in leprosy plays an important role for being responsible for the physycal and psychological suffering that produces. Objectives: To identify the difficulties in diagnising and treating neuropathic pain caused by Leprosy, as well as to investigate the main determinants of neuropathic pain. Methods: Eighty-five patients who completed treatment for leprosy with MDT/WHO were evaluated for neuropathic pain using the Douler Neuropathic 4 test (DN4). A detailes questionnaire and neurological examination were employed to complement the results. Results: Forty-eight patients were excluded because they did not have pain at the time of this study. Of the 37 patients with pain, 22 (59,5%) reported neuropathic or mixed pain and 70.8%) characterized their pain as moderate or severe; 81.8% had suffered with pain for more than 6 months. Only 12 (54.5%) patients had been diagnosed with the symptom and so the problem had not been identified in almost half of the cases (10; 45,5%). Of the 12 patients on medications for neuropathic pain, only 5 (41.6%) stated that it had improved with the pain of the folder 7 patients (58,4%) remaining the same or getting worse. The difference in the improvement of pain between treated (n=12) and untreated patients (n=10) was significant (p-value=0.020). Conclusion: Neuropathic pain is an important cause of suffering for patients with leprosy and is still neglected by the medical team because of difficulties to diagnose it. The appropriate recognition and treatment of this condition may relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life of patients.

Introducción: Dolor crónico en la lepra juega un papel importante por ser responsable de lo físico y psicológico sufren produce. Objetivos: identificar las dificultades en el dignóstico y tratamiento del dolor neuropático causado por la lepra, así como determinar las principales características de esta situación. Metodología: se evaluaron 85 pacientes que completaron el tratamiento para la lepra con MDT para el dolor neuropático dolor neuropático prueba 4 (DN4). Cuestionario juiciosa y examen neurológico se aplicaron para complementar los datos. Resultados: cuarenta y ocho pacientes fueron excluidos porque no presentan dolor ni referirse a él solamente en el pasado. De los 37 pacientes con dolor se observó que 22 (59,5%) reportó dolor neuropático o mixto y 70.8% caracterizado este dolor como de intensidad moderada o severa, com 81,8% sufrida durante um periodo superior a 6 meses. Sólo 12 pacientes (54,5%) habían sido diagnosticados con el problema y casi la mitad de los casos - 10 (45.5%) estaban aún sin reconocimiento. En cuanto al tratamiento farmacológico (n=12) para el dolor neuropático, sólo 5 (41,6%), respondieron que habían mejorado, las otras 7 (58,4%) eran igual o peor. Análisis estadístico comparando la mejoría del dolor entre los tratados - 12 pacientes, y no se trata - 10 pacientes es significativo (valor de p=0.020). Conclusión: el dolor neuropático es causa importante de sufrimiento en el paciente con lepra y todavía esta descuidado por el equipo médico que ha problemas diagnosticarla. El reconocimiento apropriado y tratamiento de esta afección pueden aliviar los síntomas y mejorar la calidad de vida de estos pacientes.

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Introdução: A dor crônica em hanseníase tem um papel importante por ser responsável pelo sofrimento físico e psicológico que produz. Objetivos: Avaliar a presença e as características de dor neuropática nas pessoas que tiveram hanseníase. Casuítica e métodos: Oitenta e cinco (n=85) pacientes que completaram tratamento para hanseníase com PQT/OMS foram avaliados para dor neuropática por meio do teste Douleur Neuropathic 4 (DN4). Criterioso questionário e exame neurológico foram aplicados para complenmentar os dados. Resultados: Quarenta e oito pacientes foram excluidos por não apresentarem dor ou por se referirem a ela apenas no passado. Dos 37 pacientes com dor confirmou-se que 22 (59,5%) tinham dor neuropática ou mista e destes, 70,8% caracterizavam esta dor como de intensidade moderada ou grave, sendo que 81,8% sofriam por um periodo maior que 6 meses. Apenas 12 (54,5%) pacientes haviam sido diagnosticados com o problema e quase metade dos casos - 10(45,5%) ainda estavam sem reconhecimento. Quanto ao tratamento medicamentoso (n=12) para a dor neuropática, apenas 5 (41,6%) responderam que tiveram melhora, os outros 7 (58,4%) ficaram igual ou pioraram comparado ao quadro inicial. A análise estatística comparando a melhora da dor entre os tratados - 12 pacientes, e os não tratados - 10 pacientes é significante (valor de p=0,020). Conclusão: A dor neuropática é causa importante de sofrimento no paciente com hanseníase e mesmo assim é negligenciada pela equipe médica que tem dificuldade em diagnosticá-la. O adequado reconhecimento e tratamento desta condição podem aliviar sintomas e melhorar a qualidade de vida destes pacientes.

Introduction: Chronic pain in leprosy plays an important role for being responsible for the physical and psychological suffering that produces. Objectives: To identify the difficulties in diagnosing and treating neuropathic pain caused by leprosy, as well as to investigate the main determinants of neuropathic pain. Methods: Eighty-five patients who completed treatment for leprosy with MDT/WHO were evaluated for neuropathic pain using the Douleur Neuropathic 4 test (DN4). A detailed questionnaire and neurological examination were employed to complement the results. Results: Forty-eight patients were excluded because they did not have pain at the time of this study. Of the 37 patients with pain, 22 (59,5%) reported neuropathic or mixed pain and 70.8% characterized their pain as moderate or severe: 81,8% had suffered with pain for more than 6 months. Only 12 (54,5%) patients had been diagnosed with the symptom and so the problem had not been identified in almost half of the cases (10; 45.5%). Of the 12 patients on medications for neuropathic pain, only 5 (41.6%) stated that it had improved with the pain of the other 7 patients (58.4%) remaining the same or getting worse. The difference in the improvement of pain between treated (n = 12) and untreated patients (n = 10) was significant (p-value = 0. 020). Conclusion: Neuropathic pain is an important cause of suffering for patients with leprosy and is still neglected by the medical team because of difficulties to diagnose it. The appropriate recognition and treatment of this condition may relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life of patients.

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JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: Os estudos de prevalência da dor apontam, sistematicamente, para valores elevados. Embora não comparáveis, a análise global permite inferir que em cada dois pacientes internados, um tem dor. Este estudo teve como principais objetivos determinar a prevalência da dor, suas características, tratamento analgésico e satisfação de usuários internados num hospital da Zona Centro de Portugal face à avaliação e tratamento da dor. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal e observacional realizado com 141 pacientes, internados há pelo menos 24 horas, em unidades cirúrgicas e médicas (excluídos os não comunicantes), com idade média de 69 anos, de ambos os gêneros, a quem foi realizada uma entrevista após o cumprimento dos respetivos procedimentos formais e éticos. RESULTADOS: Obteve-se prevalência de dor nas 24 horas anteriores ao estudo de 52,5% (28,8% dor intensa). Na altura da entrevista, a prevalência diminuiu para 41,1% (2,7% de dor intensa). Os pacientes com mais dor estavam internados nos serviços cirúrgicos e o tipo de dor era sobretudo musculoesquelética. A maioria dos pacientes com dor esperou, no máximo, 10 minutos para lhe ser administrado um analgésico. Dos 57 que referiram dor no momento da coleta dos dados, 46 (80,7%) não desejaram outro fármaco e 91,3% mostraram-se satisfeitos com o seu tratamento. CONCLUSÃO: Nessa instituição houve prevalência e abordagem da dor semelhantes às da literatura, mas a dor ainda se encontra subtratada. Esses dados permitirão a definição e implementação de um programa de controle de dor mais dirigida e eficaz.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Studies on pain prevalence systematically point to high values. Although not comparable, a global analysis allows inferring that from every two hospitalized patients, one is in pain. This study aimed at determining pain prevalence, its characteristics, analgesic treatment and satisfaction of patients admitted to a hospital in the Center of Portugal with regard to pain evaluation and treatment. METHODS: This is a transversal and observational study with 141 patients admitted for at least 24 hours to surgical and medical units (excluded those unable to communicate), with mean age of 69 years, of both genders, who were interviewed after compliance with respective formal and ethic procedures. RESULTS: Pain prevalence in the 24 hours previous to the study was 52.5% (28.8% severe pain). During interviews, prevalence has decreased to 41.1% (2.7% severe pain). Patients with more severe pain were admitted to surgical services and pain was primarily musculoskeletal. Most patients with pain have waited no more than ten minutes before analgesics were administered. From 57 patients referring pain during data collection, 46 (80.7%) did not require a different drug and 91.3% were happy with their treatment. CONCLUSION: In this institution, there has been pain prevalence and approach similar to the literature, but pain remains undertreated. Such data shall allow the definition and implementation of a more focused and effective pain control program.

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JUSTIFICATIVA E OBJETIVOS: No Brasil há pouca informação do perfil dos usuários de Clinica de Dor e o impacto que esta demanda tem sobre a utilização dos serviços de saúde. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar o perfil dos pacientes encaminhados a uma Clinica de Dor por meio de variáveis sócio-demográficas e clínicas obtidas em triagem específica, correlacionando estas variáveis ao tempo e intensidade da dor. MÉTODO: Estudo descritivo, exploratório de coorte transversal no qual foram incluídos 128 indivíduos, atendidos em ambulatório especializado no tratamento da dor. As variáveis independentes incluíram idade, gênero, estado civil, situação laboral, escolaridade, religiosidade, etnia, clinica que encaminhou, diagnóstico de origem, diagnóstico da Clinica da Dor, tempo e tipo de dor. Os instrumentos de avaliação foram uma ficha eletrônica e o exame fisico realizado por médico especialista em dor. A coleta de dados ocorreu no momento da primeira visita à clínica, antes da interação com qualquer provedor de cuidados de saúde. RESULTADOS: A prevalência de dor foi maior no sexo feminino (58,5%), nos casados (66,4%), nos inativos (62,5%) e naqueles com escolaridade média de 6,8 ± 3,5 anos. A maioria tem crenças religiosas (93,7%). O tempo médio de dor foi de 32,6 ± 21,9 meses. Houve correlação positiva entre intensidade e maior tempo de dor nas mulheres e nível educacional menor que 5 anos (p < 0,05). CONCLUSÃO: Os pacientes com dor crônica anteriormente sob os cuidados de outra especialidade encaminhados para uma Clinica de Dor, fornecem dados que podem contribuir para o controle da dor com alternativas terapêuticas mais eficazes, pela interação entre os conhecimentos dos diferentes profissionais.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: There is little information in Brazil about the profile of Pain Clinic users and the impact of this demand on health services. This study aimed at identifying the profile of patients referred to a Pain Clinic using socio-demographic and clinical variables obtained by specific screening, correlating such variables to pain duration and intensity. METHOD: This is a cohort descriptive, transversal and exploratory study with 128 individuals seen by an outpatient setting specialized in pain management. Independent variables included age, gender, marital status, labor status, education, religiousness, ethnicity, clinic referring patients, original diagnosis, Pain Clinic diagnosis, pain duration and type. Evaluation tools were an electronic card and the physical evaluation performed by a pain specialist. Data were collected at first visit before the interaction with any health care provider. RESULTS: Pain was more prevalent among females (58.5%), married (66.4%), inactive (62.5%) and in those with mean school attendance of 6.8 ± 3.5 years. Most have religious beliefs (93.7%). Mean pain duration was 32.6 ± 21.9 months. There has been positive correlation between pain intensity and longer duration among females and educational level lower than 5 years. (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Chronic pain patients previously under the care of a different specialty and referred to a Pain Clinic supply data which may contribute to control pain with more effective therapeutic approaches, by the interaction of the knowledge of different professionals.

RESUMO

La máxima agresión física que puede sufrir un ser humano son las quemaduras. Actualmente, en Chile se hospitalizan alrededor de 9.000 personas al año por quemaduras, con una tasa de mortalidad que ha ido en disminución en los últimos 20 años, por lo tanto la cantidad de pacientes sobrevivientes va en aumento. La IASP (Internacional Association for Study of Pain) definió el dolor en quemados como: "un dolor agudo y grave, que se produce al sufrir una quemadura y luego continuo con exacerbaciones que declinan gradualmente". El dolor en el trauma térmico está siempre presente, es de intensidad severa y prolongada en el tiempo, con una alta prevalencia de dolor crónico. Se sabe que el aumento en la intensidad se debe a que las quemaduras dañan gran cantidad de nociceptores, produciéndose una amplificación de la respuesta al dolor. Los opioides son el principal pilar en el tratamiento farmacológico. Es fundamental el buen manejo del dolor, para evitar el dolor patológico que aumentará el dolor crónico y con ello el desmedro de la vida personal de nuestros pacientes. Desafortunadamente el subtratamiento es una realidad, produciendo directamente un retraso en la recuperación de sus quemaduras y en la inserción social y laboral.

Burns are the greatest physical aggression that a human being can experience. In Chile, approximately 9000 patients are hospitalized annually due to burns, with a mortality rate that has decreased progressively in the last 20 years, which means that the amount of survivors is increasing. The IASP (International Association for Study of Pain) has defined pain in the burn patient as "an acute and severe pain produced by a burn that later continues with exacerbations that gradually decline". Pain in thermal trauna is always present, of severe intensity and prolonged in time, with a high prevalence of chronic pain. It is Known that the increase in intensity of pain is due to the damage of a great number of nociceptors, that produces an amplification of the response to pain. Opioids are the mainstay of pharmacologic treatment. Appropriate management of pain is fundamental to avoid pathologic pain that will increase the chronic pain and deteriorate the quality of life of our patients. Unfortunately undertreatment is a reality, retarding the healing of the burn wound, and the social and workplace reintegration.

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|a Neste estudo estimou-se o custo direto da terapia analgésica utilizada durante o período do pós-operatório (PO) e realizou-se a análise farmacoeconômica dos esquemas analgésicos administrados a pacientes submetidos à cirurgia eletiva, no 1º dia de PO de. Analisaram-se 166 prontuários de pacientes que, no período de 01 de janeiro de 1997 a 31 de dezembro de 1998, realizaram hemorroidectomia em um Hospital Geral e Privado do município de São Paulo. Os dados provenientes da população possibilitaram traçar o perfil da prescrição analgésica, identificar os esquemas terapêuticos e caracterizar o comportamento álgico dos pacientes. Para realização da análise minimização de custo e custo-efetividade, inicialmente, foram identificados os 5 esquemas analgésicos mais utilizados na prática clínica: propoxifeno 231 mg +aspirina 935 mg + cetoprofeno 200mg (DOL1A+PROF2A), cetoprofeno 300mg (PROF1B), codeína 120mg + paracetamol 2.000mg (TYL1A), codeína 120mg + paracetamol 2.000mg + cetoprofeno 200mg (TYL1A+PROF2A) e codeína 90mg + paracetamol 1.500mg + cetoprofeno 200mg (TYL1B+PROF2A); em seguida estimaram-se seus custos e respectivas efetividades, que foram medidas utilizando-se dois critérios: os registros de escapes de dor e o consumo de analgésico opióide (AO) no regime se necessário (RSN). Os resultados mostraram que o custo direto total da terapia analgésica de R$ 14.062,15 foi composto pelo regime de horário (66,77%) e regime se necessário (33,23%) e que a categoria procedimento da administração de medicamentos, realizada pela enfermagem, representou 46,99% do custo total da terapia. Os esquemas DOL1A+PROF2A e TYL1A apresentaram efetividades semelhantes e superiores aos demais, que resultaram em 30,00% de pacientes sem registro de escapes de dor nas 24 horas do 1ºPO. Na comparação destes esquemas pela análise minimização de custo o padrão TYL1A mostrou menor custo (R$19,57). O custo-efetividade médio demonstrou que o ) TYL1A foi o esquema mais efetivo e que apresentou o menor custo por paciente sem registro de escape de dor (R$65,23). Em relação à análise dos esquemas utilizando-se o critério consumo de AO no RSN verificou-se que os 5 esquemas apresentaram efetividades distintas, sendo o TYL1A+PROF2A o mais efetivo, seguido do TYL1A, com respectivamente 59,50% e 50,00% dos pacientes que não consumiram AO no RSN nas 24 horas do 1ºPO. O esquema de melhor relação custo-efetividade médio foi o TYL1A (R$39,14) seguido do TYL1A+PROF2A (R$45,74). A análise incremental apontou que o esquema TYL1A+PROF2A expressa um custo adicional de R$80,53 para se obter um benefício extra de efetividade. As análises farmacoeconômicas mostraram que a escolha do esquema analgésico mais adequado deve contemplar, além dos aspectos econômicos e clínicos das opções terapêuticas, a disponibilidade de recursos da instituição.

This study estimated the direct cost of analgesic therapy used during the postoperative (PO) period and performed a pharmacoeconomic analysis of the analgesic therapies administered to patients who underwent elective surgery on the first postoperative day. One hundred and sixty-six patient's records were assessed from January 1st, 1997 to December 31st, 1998. All these patients underwent hemorrhoidectomy in a Private General Hospital of the County of São Paulo. Population data allowed us to draw analgesic prescription profile, identify therapeutic strategies and characterize patient's breakthrough pain. At first, the 5 most used analgesic therapies in clinical practice which were propoxyphene 231 mg + aspirin 935 mg + ketoprofen 200 mg (DOL1A+PROF2A), ketoprofen 300 mg (PROF1B), codeine 120 mg + acetaminophen 2000 mg (TYL1A), codeine 120 mg + acetaminophen 2000 mg + ketoprofen 200 mg (TYL1A+PROF2A), and codeine 90 mg + acetaminophen 1500 mg + ketoprofen 200 mg (TYL1B+PROF2A) were identified in order to perform cost-minimization and cost-effectiveness analyses. Afterwards it was estimated their cost and effectiveness which were measured by two criteria: breakthrough pain registers and supplementary consumption of opioid analgesics (OA). Results showed that the total direct cost of analgesic therapy of R$ 14,062.15 included around the clock method (66.77%) and rather than as need method (33.23%) and also that the medicine administration procedure category performed by the nursing staff represented 46.99% of the total cost of the therapy. The DOL1A+PROF2A and TYL1A therapies showed similar and higher effectiveness than the others, resulting in 30% of the patients without breakthrough pain registers during the first 24 hours of PO. When comparing these therapies by cost-minimization analysis, TYL1A therapy was less costly (R$19.57). The mean cost-effectiveness showed that TYL1A was the most effective therapy and showed the lowest cost per patient without breakthrough pain register (R$65.23). Regarding therapy analysis by applying supplementary OA consumption criterion, it was observed that the 5 therapies showed different effectiveness, considering that TYL1A+PROF2A was the most effective, followed by TYL1A, with respectively 59.50% and 50% of the patients who did not take supplementary OA in the first 24 hours of PO. The therapy that showed the best mean cost-effectiveness ratio was TYL1A (R$39.14) followed by TYL1A+PROF2A (R$45.74). The incremental analysis found that TYL1A+PROF2A has an additional cost of R$80.53 in case an extra benefit of effectiveness is needed. The pharmacoeconomic analyses showed that for the most suitable analgesic therapy choice, not only should economic and clinical aspects of therapeutic choices be taken into account but also resources availability of the institution.

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Neste estudo, comparou-se o alívio da dor, a ocorrência de efeitos colaterais, o consumo de analgésicos, regular e complementar, e os custos do tratamento analgésico, em doentes submetidos a diferentes métodos de analgesia pós-operatória. Analisaram-se 403 prontuários de pacientes que, no período de janeiro de 1997 a dezembro de 1998, receberam analgesia pós-operatória sob a responsabilidade do Serviço de Terapia da Dor de um hospital geral e privado de São Paulo. Os métodos analgésicos utilizados foram a Analgesia Controlada pelo Paciente, por meio de bomba de infusão, e analgesia peridural convencional, por meio de seringa. De acordo com o método de analgesia recebido, formaram-se 5 grupos: infusão intravenosa contínua associada a bolo (IVC+B), infusão intravenosa somente em bolo (IVB), infusão peridural contínua associada a bolo (PC+B), infusão peridural em bolo (PB), infusão peridural em bolo por meio de seringa (PS). Os doentes dos 5 grupos não diferiram quanto à idade e ao sexo, diferiram quanto ao porte da cirurgia a que se submeteram e não foi possível compará-los quanto ao tipo de cirurgia. A maioria (92,9 %) dos doentes referiu ausência de dor ou dor leve, considerando-se todos os métodos analgésicos. Maior ocorrência de dor moderada a intensa foi observada no método PS e a maior e a menor média de intensidade de dor nos métodos IVC+B e PC+B, respectivamente. Essas diferenças foram estatisticamente significativa (p<0,05). Efeitos colaterais ocorreram em 44,8% dos doentes, perfazendo média de 0,72 por doente. Do conjunto de doentes estudados, a náusea e o vômitos foram os efeitos colaterais mais freqüentes (31,7% e 18,1%, respectivamente). Observou-se predomínio de prurido (p<0,001), no método PS, e retenção urinária (p=0,002), nos métodos PB e PC+B. A diferença quanto ao uso de analgésicos opióides de modo regular (maior consumo na via peridural) deveu-se às característica da via. ) Não houve diferença quanto ao número de analgésicos complementares utilizados. O método PS foi o mais barato, equivalendo a 51,6% do preço dos métodos mais caros (PC+B e PB). Visto que a magnitude da dor foi pequena, as diferenças observadas entre os métodos, possivelmente, apresentaram pequena expressão clínica. As diferenças de custo entre os métodos foram significativas, o que talvez possa ser fator importante na escolha da terapia.

This study compared the relief of pain, the occurrence of side effects, the regular and supplementary consumption of analgesics, and the costs of analgesic treatments among patients submitted to different methods of postoperative analgesia. 403 medical records of patients receiving postoperative analgesia in the period from January 1997 to December 1998 at the Pain Therapy Service of a private general hospital in the city of São Paulo were analyzed. The analgesic methods utilized were the Patient-Controlled Analgesia by means of infusion pump and the conventional peridural analgesia by means of syringe. Five groups were formed, according to the method of analgesia the patients received: continuous intravenous bolus-associated infusion (IVC+B), in-bolus only intravenous infusion (IVB), continuous peridural bolus-associated infusion (PC+B), in-bolus peridural infusion (PB), and in -bolus peridural infusion by means of syringe (PS). Patients in the 5 groups did differ as to age and sex, but they differed as to the size of the surgery they have been submitted, but it was not possible to compare them in relation to the type of surgery. Most of the patients (92,9%) reported lack of pain or slight pain, considering all the analgesic methods. The highest occurrence of moderate-to-intense pain was found in the PS method, whereas the highest and lowest average of pain intensity were found in the IVC+B and PC+B methods, respectively. These differences were statistically significant (p<0.05). 44,8% of the patients had side effects, representing a 0.72 average per patient. From the total universe of patients in the study, nausea and vomit were the most frequent side effects (31.7% and 18.1%, respectively). A prevalence of itching (p<0.001) in the PS methods and urine retention (p=0.002) in the PB and PC+B methods was found. The difference found regarding the use of opioid analgesics on a regular basis (highest consumption in intravenous route than in peridural route) results from features of the route. No difference was found as to the number of supplementary analgesics utilized. The PS method was the less expensive, corresponding to 51.6% of the price of the more expensive methods (PC+B and PB). Since pain magnitude was small, the difference among the methods found in the study had possibly low clinical significance. Cost differences among the methods were significant, which may be an important factor determining the choice for a certain therapy.

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