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Cardiac responses to appetitive stimuli have been studied as indices of motivational states and attentional processes, the former being associated with cardiac acceleration and latter deceleration. Very few studies have examined heart rate changes in appetitive classical conditioning in humans. The current study describes the development and pilot testing of a classical conditioning task to assess cardiac responses to appetitive stimuli and cues that reliably precede them. Data from 18 adults were examined. They were shown initially neutral visual stimuli (putative CS) on a computer screen followed by pictures of high-caloric food (US). Phasic cardiac deceleration to food images was observed, consistent with an orienting response to motivationally significant stimuli. Similar responses were observed to non-appetitive stimuli when they were preceded by the cue associated with the food images, suggesting that attentional processes were engaged by conditioned stimuli. These autonomic changes provide significant information about classical conditioning effects in humans.

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Attention is a pivotal cognitive function and efforts to understand its properties and operations are fundamental. Building upon the best known taxonomy of attention put forward by Posner and colleagues, the Attention Network Test (ANT) was designed to efficiently provide scores that reflect the efficacy of alerting, orienting and executive control. The ANT has not only been very widely adopted by scholars around the world, it has inspired a wide range of variants, the ANTs, - each with its own purpose. This review will describe the origin of the ANT in the taxonomic contributions of Posner and the evolution of the ANTs with some discussion of the nature and rationale for each major variant described here. We briefly allude to minor modifications of the ANT and present some suggestions related to data reporting and data analysis. We end with some projections about the future use of the original ANT and its notable variants.

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Orienting responses (ORs) are whole-organism reflexes that are elicited by innocuous stimuli, and which decrease in magnitude after stimulus repetition. ORs represent relatively simple responses that can be used to study attentional processes, and are modulated by the organism's state, including arousal and activation levels, as well as by emotional processes. Here we describe a simple method to study ORs in zebrafish, a model organism increasingly being used in behavioural neuroscience. After presentation of a static visual stimulus, an OR is elicited, characterized by approaching the stimulus and orienting towards it. After repeated stimulation, OR decreases, suggesting habituation. These responses are qualitatively altered by exposure to a fear-eliciting alarm substance (i.e., derived from the skin of a conspecific), since exposed animals avoid the visual stimulus and orient either away from the stimulus or towards it, but at a distance. The protocol can be used to study orienting responses, as well as the impact of fear and arousal on these reflexes.

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O presente artigo apresenta o trabalho realizado em uma escola pública do município de Cascavel, PR, onde se trabalhou com pais e ou responsáveis de crianças com o Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção/Hiperatividade. Intenta-se saber se esses pais e/ou cuidadores, ao receberem o diagnóstico, também recebem as orientações necessárias acerca do transtorno, bem como informações sobre como lidar com essa criança de maneira adequada. Foi aplicada uma pesquisa exploratória de ordem qualitativa para avaliar a importância desta orientação, onde se utilizou uma pesquisa-ação que ocorreu por meio de seis encontros quinzenais, através de questionários semiestruturados, Workshops, dinâmicas, entre outras atividades. Os resultados apontados mostram que em sua maioria, pais e/ou responsáveis, no momento do diagnóstico não recebem as orientações necessárias acerca do transtorno, mas sim, orientação quanto a dosagem e uso da medicação.

The present paper presents the study that took place in a public school in the city of Cascavel, PR with parents or caregivers of children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. It is intended to know if when these parents or caregivers receive their children’s diagnosis, also receive the necessary information concerning the disease, as well as information on how to deal with the child in a proper way. An exploratory and qualitative research was carried out to evaluate the importance of this orientation and also a research-action throughout six meetings, semi structured questionnaires, workshops, group dynamics and other activities. The results have shown that most parents or caregivers, at the moment they get the child’s diagnosis, do not get the necessary information concerning the disease but mostly information about the medicine and the way to take it.

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Resumen Las diferencias entre sexos suelen ser un aspecto crucial a ser tenido en cuenta en ciertos desarrollos en neurociencias cognitivas. En el estudio de las redes neuronales de la atención (alerta fásica, vigilancia, orientación, control atencional), aún no se observa un consenso establecido y esclarecedor sobre las diferencias existentes entre mujeres y hombres. Este trabajo presenta una revisión de las diferencias entre sexos encontradas en las investigaciones de las redes atencionales. Se pretende aportar una discusión que sirva como guía para considerar el sexo como variable de interés en futuros estudios en ciencias cognitivas.

Abstract Sex differences are often a crucial topic to be taken into account in certain developments in cognitive neuroscience. In the study of attention neural networks (phasic alerting, vigilance, orienting, executive control), there is not yet a consensus established and enlightening about the differences between men and women. This paper presents a review of sex differences found in investigations of attentional networks. We plan to bring a discussion to serve as a guide to regard sex as a variable of interest in future studies in cognitive neuroscience.

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Algumas teorias propõem que a percepção auditiva para sons complexos, como a fala e sons simples, ocorre de maneira distinta. Teorias sobre a existência de uma rota especial para decodificação da fala, com distinções desde a detecção do espectro acústico, a despolarização não linear das fibras do nervo auditivo, até a localização de neurônios especializados para interpretar sons de fala a nível cortical. Seria possível esta habilidade específica de percepção de fala um fator que modificaria as respostas de crianças entre 6 a 24 meses durante uma avaliação comportamental? Para avaliação audiológica nesta faixa etária, a Audiometria com Reforço Visual (VRA) é o exame indicado para obter níveis mínimos de audição (NMA). Diversos estudos apresentam as indicações da técnica do VRA para obter respostas confiáveis do sistema auditivo. Diante destas perguntas, determinou-se realizar um estudo comparativo do VRA com dois estímulos: warble nas frequências de 0.5, 1, 2 e 4kHz, e estímulos de fala, os seis sons de Ling /a/, /i/, /u/, /s/, /?/, /m/. Os dois exames foram aplicados em crianças com e sem deficiência auditiva, com os objetivos de determinar os NMA, o tempo de teste, número de sessões e os comportamentos observados durante a avaliação. Além da investigação quantitativa, foi elaborado um guia de orientações para realização do VRA. Foram avaliadas 123 crianças, as quais 57 foram inclusas na pesquisa, os principais motivos de exclusão foram: timpanogramas alterados, deficiências múltiplas, atraso motor e desordem do espectro da neuropatia auditiva. Participaram do grupo controle (GC) 33 crianças sem deficiência auditiva, idade média de 12 meses, e 24 com deficiência auditiva do grupo experimental (GE), idade média de 18 meses. No total foram obtidos 718 NMA considerando as 57 crianças e os 10 estímulos avaliados. Para o GC a média do VRA-warble foi de 17,05 dBNA e para o VRA-Ling de 13,60 dBNA; no GE as médias foram respectivamente, 95,51 dBNA e 85,88 dBNA, ou seja, estatisticamente os valores obtidos com os sons de Ling foram menores do que os obtidos com o estímulo warble. Os tempos médios para obtenção de pelo menos um NMA ou todos os NMA com o Ling e warble, não se diferiram na comparação intra grupos, assim como o número de sessões realizadas. No entanto, observou-se na comparação entre grupos, que o número de sessões, o número de NMA obtidos e o tempo de teste na realização do VRA-warble, foram maiores no GE. Outros comportamentos foram observados durante o decorrer do VRA: atenção, reflexo de orientação, imitação do estímulo auditivo, apontar para o fone, olhar para avaliadora/mãe. Considerando os resultados obtidos: o protocolo de teste utilizado mostrou-se eficaz para obtenção dos NMA nos dois grupos estudados; os sons de Ling podem ser utilizados na avaliação audiológica infantil de forma a complementar os achados com os estímulos de frequência específica. Porém, uma vez que os sons de Ling possuem uma ampla faixa de frequência, outros estudos que correlacionem os NMA para os sons de Ling nas diferentes configurações audiométricas são necessários.

Some theories postulate the auditory perception to complex sounds and simple sounds, occur differently. Theories about the existence of a special route for decoding speech, with distinctions from the detection of the acoustic spectrum, nonlinear depolarization of the auditory nerve fibers to the location of specialized neurons to interpret speech sounds at the cortical level. Is it possible this specific skill of speech perception a factor that would change the responses of children aged 6 to 24 months during a behavioral assessment? For audiological evaluation in this age group, with Visual Reinforcement Audiometry (VRA) is the test to obtain minimum response levels (MRL) or thresholds. Faced with these questions, determined to carry out a comparative study of the VRA with two stimuli: warble tones in the frequencies of 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 kHz, and speech stimuli, the six Ling sounds /a/, /i/, /u/, /s/, /?/, /m/. Both tests were applied in children with and without hearing impairment with the objective of determining the NMA, test time, number of sessions and the behavior observed during the assessment. In addition to quantitative research, we designed a guide guidelines for conducting the VRA. 123 children were evaluated, of which 57 were included in the survey, the main reasons for exclusion were changed tympanograms, multiple disabilities, delayed motor and auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder. Participated in the control group (CG) 33 children without hearing impairment, mean age 12 months, and 24 with hearing loss in the experimental group (GE), average age of 18 months. In total 718 were obtained NMA considering the 57 children and 10 evaluated stimuli. For the GC average of VRA-warble was 17.05 dBHL and for VRA-Ling of 13.60 dB HL; GE in the averages were respectively 95.51 and 85.88 dBHL dBNA, ie, statistically the values obtained with the sounds of Ling were lower than those obtained with the warble stimulus. The average time to achieve at least one or all of the NMA NMA with Ling and warble, did not differ compared intra groups, as well as the number of sessions. However, it was noted in comparison between groups, the number of sessions, the number of NMA obtained and the and the test time in achieving VRA-warble were higher in the EG. Other behaviors were observed during the course of the VRA: attention, orientation reflex, imitation of auditory stimuli, point to the phone, look appraiser / mother. Considering the results obtained: the test protocol used was effective for obtaining the NMA in both groups; Ling sounds can be used in the audiological evaluation of children to complement the findings with specific frequency stimuli. However, since Ling sounds have a wide range of frequencies, other studies correlating to NMA Ling sounds in different audiometric configurations are needed.

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Selective attention directs cognitive resources to relevant objects or events through either voluntary (top-down) or automatic (bottom-up) control. This paper analyzes voluntary and automatic orienting of attention during childhood development. Seventy-four children (6 to 10 years old) were asked to press a key in response to a visual target presented in a previously oriented position (voluntary orienting; Experiment 1) or after a peripheral unpredictable cue (automatic orienting; Experiment 2). A systematic reduction of reaction times was observed in older children in both experiments. For automatic orienting in Experiment 2, reaction times were shorter in the ipsilateral condition than in the contralateral condition. However, for older children, the differences in reaction times between these conditions decreased. This may be attributable to the appearance of Inhibition of Return as a result of the maturation of the attentional system derived from childhood development, which contributes to more effective exploration of the environment.

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Selective attention directs cognitive resources to relevant objects or events through either voluntary (top-down) or automatic (bottom-up) control. This paper analyzes voluntary and automatic orienting of attention during childhood development. Seventy-four children (6 to 10 years old) were asked to press a key in response to a visual target presented in a previously oriented position (voluntary orienting; Experiment 1) or after a peripheral unpredictable cue (automatic orienting; Experiment 2). A systematic reduction of reaction times was observed in older children in both experiments. For automatic orienting in Experiment 2, reaction times were shorter in the ipsilateral condition than in the contralateral condition. However, for older children, the differences in reaction times between these conditions decreased. This may be attributable to the appearance of Inhibition of Return as a result of the maturation of the attentional system derived from childhood development, which contributes to more effective exploration of the environment.(AU)

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A todo instante, ocorrem, no ambiente, estímulos com diferentes qualidades e graus de relevância que competem pela atenção do organismo e, caso selecionados, serão prioritariamente processados. Este trabalho foi planejado com três experimentos para analisar a dinâmica temporal da orientação da atenção. Eles aprofundam o conhecimento sobre os efeitos do controle de previsibilidade e da utilização de pistas simbólicas centrais na orientação temporal da atenção. Em cada experimento, o participante sentava-se em frente a um monitor acoplado a um computador, que gerava os estímulos e registrava o tempo de reação manual (TR) a alvos visuais. Como resultado, observou-se um direcionamento temporal da atenção, seja por meio do controle da previsibilidade, seja por meio de pistas simbólicas centrais. Pode-se dizer, assim, que a probabilidade temporal de ocorrência dos estímulos permitiu uma preparação do indivíduo para responder, o que sugere que houve uma alocação prévia dos recursos atencionais para os intervalos indicados de forma temporal, gerando, consequentemente, TR menores.

All the time the environment presents stimuli of different types and degrees of relevance that compete for the attention of the organism and, when selected, they take priority for being processed. This research is composed of three experiments designed to analyze the temporal dynamics of attention orienting. They deepen the knowledge about the effects of predictability control and the use of central symbolic cues in temporal orienting of attention. In each experiment the participant had to sit in front of a monitor plugged to a computer that generates stimuli and registers manual reaction time (RT) to visual targets. As a result we observed a temporal direction of attention, either due to the control of predictability or through central symbolic cues. Therefore we can say that the temporal probability of stimuli occurrence has allowed a preparation of the individual to respond. This suggests that there was a previous allocation of attentional resources to time-determined intervals which generated lower RTs.

En cualquier momento se producen, en el entorno, estímulos con diferentes calidades y grados de relevancia, que compiten por la atención del organismo y, si resulta seleccionado, será procesado como una prioridad. Este trabajo se planificó con tres experimentos para examinar la dinámica de la orientación de la atención. Que profundizaran el conocimiento sobre los efectos de la previsibilidad y el control de la utilización de señales simbólicas centrales en la orientación temporal de la atención. En cada experimento, los participantes se sentaron en frente de un monitor conectado a un equipo que genera los estímulos y se registra el tiempo de reacción manual (TR) a los objetivos visuales. Como resultado de ello hubo una dirección temporal de la atención, ya sea a través del control o la previsibilidad por el centro de señales simbólicas. Se puede decir por tanto que la probabilidad de ocurrencia temporal de estímulos permiten la preparación de un individuo para responder, lo que sugiere que hubo una asignación previa de recursos de atención a los intervalos indicados en el tiempo, causando, en consecuencia, menor TR.

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A todo instante, ocorrem, no ambiente, estímulos com diferentes qualidades e graus de relevância que competem pela atenção do organismo e, caso selecionados, serão prioritariamente processados. Este trabalho foi planejado com três experimentos para analisar a dinâmica temporal da orientação da atenção. Eles aprofundam o conhecimento sobre os efeitos do controle de previsibilidade e da utilização de pistas simbólicas centrais na orientação temporal da atenção. Em cada experimento, o participante sentava-se em frente a um monitor acoplado a um computador, que gerava os estímulos e registrava o tempo de reação manual (TR) a alvos visuais. Como resultado, observou-se um direcionamento temporal da atenção, seja por meio do controle da previsibilidade, seja por meio de pistas simbólicas centrais. Pode-se dizer, assim, que a probabilidade temporal de ocorrência dos estímulos permitiu uma preparação do indivíduo para responder, o que sugere que houve uma alocação prévia dos recursos atencionais para os intervalos indicados de forma temporal, gerando, consequentemente, TR menores.(AU)

All the time the environment presents stimuli of different types and degrees of relevance that compete for the attention of the organism and, when selected, they take priority for being processed. This research is composed of three experiments designed to analyze the temporal dynamics of attention orienting. They deepen the knowledge about the effects of predictability control and the use of central symbolic cues in temporal orienting of attention. In each experiment the participant had to sit in front of a monitor plugged to a computer that generates stimuli and registers manual reaction time (RT) to visual targets. As a result we observed a temporal direction of attention, either due to the control of predictability or through central symbolic cues. Therefore we can say that the temporal probability of stimuli occurrence has allowed a preparation of the individual to respond. This suggests that there was a previous allocation of attentional resources to time-determined intervals which generated lower RTs.(AU)

En cualquier momento se producen, en el entorno, estímulos con diferentes calidades y grados de relevancia, que compiten por la atención del organismo y, si resulta seleccionado, será procesado como una prioridad. Este trabajo se planificó con tres experimentos para examinar la dinámica de la orientación de la atención. Que profundizaran el conocimiento sobre los efectos de la previsibilidad y el control de la utilización de señales simbólicas centrales en la orientación temporal de la atención. En cada experimento, los participantes se sentaron en frente de un monitor conectado a un equipo que genera los estímulos y se registra el tiempo de reacción manual (TR) a los objetivos visuales. Como resultado de ello hubo una dirección temporal de la atención, ya sea a través del control o la previsibilidad por el centro de señales simbólicas. Se puede decir por tanto que la probabilidad de ocurrencia temporal de estímulos permiten la preparación de un individuo para responder, lo que sugiere que hubo una asignación previa de recursos de atención a los intervalos indicados en el tiempo, causando, en consecuencia, menor TR.(AU)

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Atenção é a seleção de informações que terão prioridade de processamento pelo sistema nervoso. Este trabalho avaliou o tempo de reação (TR) de 6 jogadores do voleibol e 6 não esportistas, em tarefas de orientação voluntária e automática da atenção. No Experimento I (voluntária), aparecia o ponto de fixação (PF) e, após 700 ms, uma seta (válida, inválida ou neutra) surgia no centro e indicava à direita ou à esquerda. Após 300, 500 ou 800 ms, surgia o alvo. No Experimento II (automática), aparecia um PF, e, após 700 ms, um quadrado brilhava. Depois de 100 ou 800 ms, piscava o alvo na mesma posição ou em posição oposta. O participante respondia pressionando uma tecla. Ao final, as medianas dos TR foram submetidas à Anova. No Experimento I, observou-se que jogadores foram mais rápidos que não esportistas (p < 0,05), diferentemente do que ocorreu no Experimento II (p = 0,36). Os resultados indicam que jogadores de voleibol apresentam melhor desempenho em tarefas de orientação voluntária da atenção.

Attention is the selection of information to improve central nervous system functioning. In this study, reaction times (RT) of 6 volleyball players and 6 non sports practitioners were compared during voluntary and automatic orienting of attention tasks. In Experiment I (voluntary) a central fixation point (FP) appeared and after 700 ms a central cue (valid, invalid or neutral) indicating to the left or to the right. After 300, 500 or 800 ms the target flashed. In Experiment II (automatic), after 700 ms a peripheral cue appeared and after 100 or 800 ms the target appeared on the same or the opposite cue position. Subjects responded by pressing a joystick key. Median RT for each condition were used in Anova. The analysis of Experiment I demonstrated that volleyball players were faster than non sports practitioners (p < 0.05), differently of Experiment II (p = 0.36). These results indicate that volleyball players had better performance on voluntary attentional tasks.

Atención es la selección de informaciones que tendrán prioridad de procesamiento por el sistema nervioso. Esto estudio evaluó el tiempo de reacción (TR) de 6 jugadores de voleibol y 6 no-deportistas en tareas de orientación voluntaria y automática de la atención. En el Experimento I (voluntaria) aparecía el punto de fijación (PF) y tras 700 ms, una flecha (válida, inválida o neutral) indicaba la derecha o la izquierda. Después de 300, 500 o 800 ms surgía el blanco. En el Experimento II (automática) aparecía un PF y tras 700 ms un cuadrado brillaba. Después de 100 o 800 ms parpadeaba el blanco en la misma posición o en la posición opuesta. El participan e respondía apretando una tecla. Al final las medianas de los TR fueron sometidas a Anova. En el Experimento I, los jugadores fueron más rápidos que los no-deportistas (p < 0,05), diferentemente de lo que ocurrió en el Experimento II (p = 0,36). Los resultados indican que los jugadores de voleibol tienen mejor desempeño en tareas de orientación voluntaria de atención.

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Repetitive Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) has shown to modify the excitability of targeted cortical regions in animals and humans, thus transiently altering the efficiency of neural projections within extended brain networks. Adequate processing and behavioral output depend on a given ‘state’ of functional interactions between cortical and subcortical nodes within this network. We applied rTMS trains targeted at the visuoparietal (VP) cortex, which is a crucial cortical node of an extended visuo-spatial neural network, in both, intact (n=2) and injured cats (n=2) with unilateral ablation of the VP region. All four intact cats were intensively trained in a set of visuo-spatial tasks consisting in the detection and localization of moving or static targets. In two of these cats, a 50 mm circular coil was centered on the left VP cortex and Sham or real rTMS was delivered during 20 minutes at 1 Hz. Real but not Sham rTMS significantly increased the number of errors in orienting responses towards static but not moving targets, presented at the contralateral visual hemifield (38±4%; and 48±3% p<0.05 vs. pre rTMS), whereas no increase respect to baseline was observed for ipsilateral targets (5±2%; 2±1%; n.s). Performance went back to baseline error levels 45 minutes after the end of the stimulation (4±2; 6±1%). In 2 other animals, the right or left parietal and primary visual cortex was surgically removed, generating a Daily stimulation with 1 Hz rTMS on the intact VP region resulted in a progressive reduction of detection¬orienting mistakes to moving but not static stimuli (down to 34±5% and 28±4% errors; p<0.05). We conclude that rTMS is able to interact with brain networks in both ways, transiently disrupting visuo-spatial processing in normal animals, and also canceling spatial neglect generated by lesions of the same areas. It constitutes, thus, a non-invasive ‘surgery-less’ method to manipulate brain activity and promote recovery after injuries.

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