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Background: Polymyositis is a generalized inflammatory myopathy which can lead to rhabdomyolysis. This affection may have several origins, including degenerative, metabolic, autoimmune, infectious, inflammatory, ischemic, traumatic, by drug use, induced by toxins and also of idiopathic origin. Diagnosis is made with seric dosage, electrodiagnostic tests and muscle biopsy. Lesions in the rostral oblong medulla may affect the central vestibular system, and there may be signs such as opisthotonos, nystagmus, and strabismus. The aim of this report is to describe a case of a mixed breed dog with manifestation of polymyositis associated with brainstem signs of probable idiopathic origin. Case: A 5-year-old mixed breed male dog was attended with opisthotonos episodes for 2 days, and pelvic limbs extension and thoracic limbs flexion that lasted 10 to 20 min at intervals of approximately 1 h. The animal was anorexic and had also presented one episode of emesis. Upon neurological examination, ventromedial strabismus and Horner's syndrome was observed on the right side, besides vertical nystagmus, flaccid tetraparesis and absence of proprioception in the four limbs. Biochemical analyses revealed creatine kinase (CK) increased (2,433.9 UI/L - reference: 1.5-28.4 UI/L), and urinalysis showed dark color and presence of occult blood without, however, erythrocyturia. Electrocardiogram (ECG) showed QS wave and deviation of the electrical axis. Treatment with prednisolone (1 mg/kg, BID), phenobarbital (2 mg/kg, BID), maropitant citrate (1 mg/kg in 2 doses), and crystalloid fluid therapy (50 mL/kg/day) were prescribed. On the 4th day, the dog was more active and feeding without a tube, so it recommended keep the treatment at home. On the 10th day, the animal had proprioception present on the 4 limbs and normorexia. Biochemical analyses and urinalysis showed no alterations, but normochromic normochromic anemia with thrombocytopenia and leukocytosis by neutrophilia showed in blood count exam. PCR to Ehrlichia canis, Hepatozoon sp., and Babesia canis resulted negative. On the 15th day, blood count, biochemical analyses and urinalysis showed no alterations. Neurological examination revealed only positional vertical nystagmus. which remained as a sequel. Discussion: Polymyositis may be accompanied by rhabdomyolysis, characterized by acute muscle necrosis, increased CK and myoglobinuria. The animal had polymyositis of acute onset, with myoglobinuria and elevated CK values, whose presentation included myalgia and muscle weakness. In humans, polymyositis is accompanied by changes in electrocardiographic tracing without clinical alterations. In dogs, the first report that showed cardiac involvement was compatible with myocarditis. The changes in ECG in the present case was attributed to failure in myocardial electrical conduction. The patient also showed signs of brainstem and central vestibular system injuries. Stress myopathy, intoxication, snakebite, infectious, and metabolic diseases were discarded leading to a clinical suspicion as idiopathic origin. Similar to a published case, the patient of this report received symptomatic and supportive treatment, being discharged from the hospital 20 days after the onset of clinical signs. Thus, polymyositis may be accompanied by signs indicative of brainstem injury. Patients with rhabdomyolysis require intense monitoring due to the high risk of developing acute renal failure. Since no causative agent was identified, symptomatic treatment combined with the prevention of possible complications were fundamental for the maintenance of the animal's life.

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The downer cow syndrome (DCS) is characterized by an alert cow showing inability or reluctance to stand for 12 hours or more. This paper reported clinical, laboratory, and pathological findings in a Guzerá heifer with rhabdomyolysis, pigmenturia and acute renal failure following DCS. A 17-month-old Guzerá heifer was transported via a 350-km ride in a truck and showed sternal recumbency and severe difficulty in standing and walking. Neurological examination was unremarkable, and the heifer presented normal response to cranial nerves and spinal cord tests. Rectal palpation revealed a 5-month gravid uterus. No other abnormalities were noted in the pelvis or around the coxofemoral joints. Biochemical abnormalities included extremely high muscular enzyme activities (creatine phosphokinase and aspartate aminotransferase) and high creatinine levels. Urinalysis revealed blackish and cloudy urine, proteinuria, and a positive occult blood test. Spinal cord ultrasonography showed no abnormalities. This report highlighted an uncommon clinical presentation (myoglobinuria) and pathological findings in a heifer with DCS as a consequence of severe compressive muscle damage. Practitioners and producers must be aware of the risk of careless road transportation for long distances of cattle, especially obese cows, avoiding unnecessary suffering and expenses due to DCS.

A síndrome da vaca caída (SVC) é caracterizada por um bovino alerta que mostra incapacidade ou relutância em permanecer em estação por 12 horas ou mais. O objetivo deste trabalho é relatar os achados clínicos, laboratoriais e patológicos em uma novilha Guzerá com rabdomiólise, pigmentúria e insuficiência renal aguda após a SVC. Uma novilha da raça Guzerá, de 17 meses de idade, foi transportada de caminhão por 350 km e apresentou decúbito esternal, grande dificuldade para assumir estação e caminhar. O exame neurológico não demonstrou alterações, e a novilha possuía resposta normal aos testes de nervos cranianos e medula espinhal. A palpação retal revelou útero grávido de cinco meses. Nenhuma outra anormalidade foi observada na pelve ou na região das articulações coxofemorais. As anormalidades bioquímicas incluíram atividades de enzimas musculares (creatina fosfoquinase e aspartato aminotransferase) extremamente aumentadas e níveis elevados de creatinina. A urinálise revelou urina enegrecida e turva, proteinúria e teste de sangue oculto positivo. O exame ultrassonográfico da medula espinhal não apresentou anormalidades. Este relato evidencia uma apresentação clínica (mioglobinúria) e achados patológicos incomuns em uma novilha com SVC em consequência de extensa lesão muscular compressiva. Veterinários e produtores devem estar atentos aos riscos do transporte rodoviário descuidado por longas distâncias de bovinos, especialmente vacas obesas, evitando assim sofrimento e despesas desnecessárias decorrentes da SVC.

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BACKGROUND: The myopathic form of carnitine palmitoyltransferase type II deficiency is an inherited autosomal recessive metabolic myopathy usually starting in childhood. Most reports have been on European and Japanese populations, and no Native South American patients have been reported to date. The p.Ser113Leu mutation is the most frequent in the European population. Only lower-leg magnetic resonance imaging findings have been reported, with gluteus maximus involvement in one case and normal imaging in other patients. CASE PRESENTATION: Two Native South American siblings, a boy and a girl, presented to our neuromuscular clinic with recurrent rhabdomyolysis associated with transient muscle weakness after prolonged exercise. During episodes, their creatine kinase concentrations were markedly increased, up to 148,000 (1.48 × 105) IU/L in the boy and 18,000 (1.8 × 104) IU/L in the girl. The results of electroneuromyography and histopathology suggested a nonspecific myopathy. CPT2 gene sequencing showed two heterozygous mutations: the p.Ser113Leu variant and a novel one (predicted to be deleterious by in silico analysis), the p.Ser373Pro variant. The patients' parents were asymptomatic carriers. Whole-body magnetic resonance imaging showed mild selective involvement in the thoracic extensors and pelvic girdle in both siblings, and in the thighs and lower legs in one of them. Dietary and bezafibrate treatment was started, and symptomatic relief was observed. CONCLUSIONS: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported Native South American family with a CPT2 deficiency carrying a novel mutation and particular features visualized by whole-body magnetic resonance imaging.

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Abstract The present study was performed to explore the curative effect of Methylsulfonylmethane (MSM) in an experimental model of myoglobinuric acute renal failure (ARF). In this experimental model, Rats were injected with 50% glycerol (10 mL/kg, im) followed by an hour later and daily in the next six days by MSM (400 mg/kg) or saline. Kidney's function (urea and creatinine), and reduced glutathione were analyzed. A renal failure produced by glycerol injection, with a significant increase of blood urea and serum creatinine was observed. Rats that received MSM in addition to glycerol had significantly lower blood urea and serum creatinine levels compared to those receiving glycerol alone. However, glutathione has markedly increased after MSM treatment. The effect is probably due to the antioxidant activity of MSM. This may provide therapeutic opportunities for treating humans, myoglobinuric ARF.

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BACKGROUND: Rhabdomyolysis is a clinical syndrome that comprises destruction of skeletal muscle with outflow of intracellular muscle content into the bloodstream. There is a great heterogeneity in the literature regarding definition, epidemiology, and treatment. The aim of this systematic literature review was to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the epidemiologic data, definition, and management of rhabdomyolysis. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted using the keywords "rhabdomyolysis" and "crush syndrome" covering all articles from January 2006 to December 2015 in three databases (MEDLINE, SCOPUS, and ScienceDirect). The search was divided into two steps: first, all articles that included data regarding definition, pathophysiology, and diagnosis were identified, excluding only case reports; then articles of original research with humans that reported epidemiological data (e.g., risk factors, common etiologies, and mortality) or treatment of rhabdomyolysis were identified. Information was summarized and organized based on these topics. RESULTS: The search generated 5632 articles. After screening titles and abstracts, 164 articles were retrieved and read: 56 articles met the final inclusion criteria; 23 were reviews (narrative or systematic); 16 were original articles containing epidemiological data; and six contained treatment specifications for patients with rhabdomyolysis. CONCLUSION: Most studies defined rhabdomyolysis based on creatine kinase values five times above the upper limit of normal. Etiologies differ among the adult and pediatric populations and no randomized controlled trials have been done to compare intravenous fluid therapy alone versus intravenous fluid therapy with bicarbonate and/or mannitol.

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La rabdomiólisis es un síndrome causado por lesión al músculo estriado con liberación de contenido celular muscular a la circulación, puede causar acidosis láctica, hiperfosfatemia, coagulación intravascular diseminada, hiperkalemia, síndrome compartimental, falla renal, e incluso puede comprometer la vida del paciente. La triada de síntomas incluye mialgias, debilidad y como manifestación cardinal orina de color rojoachocolatado, frente a lo cual se debe establecer diagnóstico diferencial ante la aparente eritrocituria e interrogarse sobre el uso de fármacos que enrojezcan la orina. El desconocimiento clínico y la demora diagnóstica, retardan el tratamiento específico incrementando así la morbimortalidad. El diagnóstico se puede confirmar ágilmente demostrando niveles elevados de: creatinina fosfoquinasa (CPK) sérica, análisis metabólicos, mioglobinuria, análisis de las enzimas intracelulares transaminasa glutámicooxalacético/ aspartato aminotransferasa (GOT/ASAT), transaminasa glutámico pirúvico/alanino aminotransferasa (GPT/ALAT). El tratamiento está encauzado a acelerar la recuperación, identificar y corregir cualquier causa reversible de lesión muscular al igual que prevenir y tratar las complicaciones, la infusión oportuna y agresiva de cristaloides es el pilar del tratamiento, el uso de manitol, bicarbonato y antioxidantes aún es controvertido. En este reporte de casos se muestran las manifestaciones clínicas típicas de rabdomiólisis en dos hombres durante la primera semana de entrenamiento, en quienes se precipitó esta condición por deshidratación, actividad física intensa, inadecuada vestimenta y exposición a temperatura ambiental elevada (mayor a 25°C). Estos pacientes fueron rápidamente diagnosticados, y recibieron tratamiento oportuno por lo que no presentaron complicaciones, actualmente están asintomáticos.

Rhabdomyolysis is a syndrome caused by breakdown of skeletal muscle with release of muscle cell contents into the bloodstream, may cause lactic acidosis, hyperphosphatemia, disseminated intravascular coagulation, hyperkalemia, compartment syndrome, renal failure, and may even jeopardize the patient's life. The triad of symptoms including myalgia, weakness and urine - chocolate - red color as a cardinal manifestation, against which must be set before the differential diagnosis erythrocyturia apparent and question the use of drugs that turn red urine. Clinical ignorance and delay in diagnosis slow down specific treatment. The diagnosis can be confirmed swiftly demonstrating elevated levels of serum creatine phosphokinase (CPK), metabolic analysis, myoglobinuria, analysis of intracellular glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase/aspartate aminotransferase enzymes (ALT/AST), glutamic pyruvic transaminase/alanine aminotransferase (GPT/ALAT). Treatment is aimed at accelerating recovery, identifying any reversible cause of muscle injury, prevent and treat complications, timely and aggressive crystalloid infusion is the mainstay of treatment, the use of mannitol, bicarbonate and antioxidants even is controversial. This case report shows the typical clinical manifestations of rhabdomyolysis in two men in the first week of training, in whom this condition was precipitated by dehydration, intense physical activity, inadequate clothing and exposure to high ambient temperature (above 25°C). These patients were quickly diagnosed and received timely treatment so no present any complications, actually they are asymptomatic.

A rabdomiólise é uma síndrome causada por lesão do músculo estriado com libertação do conteúdo das células musculares para a torrente sanguínea, a suas causas são acidose láctica, hiperfosfatemia, coagulação intravascular disseminada, hipercalemia, síndrome do compartimento, insuficiência renal, e pode mesmo comprometer a vida do paciente. A tríade de sintomas inclui mialgias, fraqueza e, como manifestação cardinal, urina de cor vermelho - achocolatado, por isso é preciso estabelecer um diagnostico diferencial ante a eritrocitária aparente e questionar sobre os medicamentos que tornam a urina vermelha. A ignorância clínica e atraso de diagnóstico retardam o tratamento específico aumentando assim a morbidade e mortalidade. O diagnóstico pode ser confirmado rapidamente demonstrando níveis elevados de: creatinina fosfoquinase (CPK), análises metabólicos, mioglobinúria, análises das enzimas intracelulares transaminase glutâmico-oxalacética/aspartato aminotransferase (TGO/AST), transaminase glutâmico pirúvica/alanina aminotransferase (TGP/ALT). O tratamento tem sido orientado para acelerar a recuperação, identificar e corrigir qualquer causa reversível de lesão muscular assim como prevenir e tratar complicações. A infusão oportuna e agressiva de cristaloides é a base do tratamento, a utilização de manitol, bicarbonato e antioxidantes é ainda controversa. Neste informe de casos se revelam as manifestações clinicas tipicas de rabdomiólise em dois homens durante a primeira semana treinamento, em eles foi manifestada esta condição por desidratação, atividade física intensa, roupas inadequadas e exposição ao ambiente de alta temperatura (superior a 25). Estes pacientes foram rapidamente diagnosticados e eles receberam um tratamento oportuno pelo qual eles não presentaram complicações e atualmente eles não têm nenhum sintoma.

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Mujer de 58 años de edad, remitida a urgencias por presentar cuadro clínico de insuficiencia renal aguda (IRA) secundaria a mordedura de serpiente (Bothrops Atrox). Ingresa hipotensa con elevación de azoados e hiperkalemia, ecografía renal dentro de parámetros normales. Se maneja terapia dialítica con lo cual presenta mejoría clínica. En este reporte se detallan aspectos del diagnóstico, manejo clínico y posibles mecanismos fisiopatológicos que explican el daño renal.

A 58 years old woman was referred to the emergency room with acute renal failure (ARF) having suffered a snake bite (Bothrops Atrox). On examination she was found with hypotension, elevated kidney function, hyperkalemia and a renal ultrasound with no abnormalities. Clinical improvement was achieved with dialytic therapy. In this report, certain aspects of the diagnosis are highlighted such as clinical management and possible pathophysiological mechanism of urderlying kidney damage.

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La rabdomiólisis es un síndrome caracterizado por destrucción muscular y liberación de elementos intracelulares y en especial mioglobina del músculo dañado a la circulación. La injuria renal aguda es frecuente en la rabdomiólisis y resulta de la acción nefrotóxica del grupo hem de la mioglobina. Presentamos el caso de un joven con una enfermedad amenazante para la vida, asociada a elevaciones extremas de las enzimas musculares, trastornos hidroelectrolíticos potencialmente fatales y fallo renal agudo oligúrico como resultado de un ejercicio físico intenso a 3800 metros sobre el nivel del mar y revisamos la literatura acerca de esta interesante condición clínica.

Rhabdomiolisis is a syndrome characterized by muscle cell destruction and release of the intracellular content, and mainly myoglobin, into the blood. An acute kidney injury is common and due to the nephrotoxic action of the hem group of myoglobin. We present a young man with a life threatening illness, associated with an extreme elevation of muscle enzymes, potentially fatal electrolyte disorders and oliguric acute renal failure as a result of a vigorous exertion at 3.800 meters above sea level and review the literature about this interesting clinical condition.

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La destruccion del músculo esquelético en la condición patológica conocida como rabdomiolisis resulta en la liberación al torrente sanguíneo de elevadas concentraciones de la proteína mioglobina de 17 kDa, la cual filtra libremente a través del glomérulo sobrepasando frecuentemente la capacidad de reabsorción del túbulo proximal. Por lo tanto, la identificación de mioglobina en orina es una herramienta esencial que complementa otros parámetros bioquímicos en el diagnóstico de la enfermedad. En el presente trabajo, mediante la combinación de electroforesis en geles de agarosa e inmunofijación empleando anticuerpos específicos, se provee evidencia directa de la presencia de mioglobina intacta en la orina de un paciente con insuficiencia renal aguda asociada a rabdomiolisis desencadenada por efecto secundario de una terapia reductora de lípidos. Los datos electroforéticos e inmunoquímicos fueron corroborados mediante secuencia N-terminal de aminoácidos, immunoblot y espectrometría de masa. La simple combinación de electroforesis e inmunofijación provee una estrategia flexible que puede extenderse a la identificación de diversas proteínas involucradas en proteinurias de sobrecarga.(AU)

The destruction of skeletal muscle in a condition known as rhabdomyolysis results in the release into the blood stream of large quantities of the 17 kDa myoglobin that freely filtrates through the glomeruli, often overwhelming the capacity of the proximal tubule for reabsorption. As a result, identification of myoglobin in the urine becomes an essential tool to fully complement other biochemical parameters in the diagnosis of the disease. Using a combination of protein electrophoresis in agarose gels and immunofixation with specific antibodies, direct evidence is provided for the presence of intact myoglobin in the urine of a patient with acute kidney injury due to rhabdomyolysis triggered by undesirable side effects of specific medications. The electrophoretic/immunochemical data was further corroborated by amino acid sequence, Western blot, and mass spectrometry analysis. The simple combination of electrophoresis and immunofixation protocols provides a flexible approach that can be extended to the identification of the various proteins known to be involved in overflow proteinuria.(AU)

A destruiþÒo do músculo esquelético na condiþÒo patológica conhecida como rabdomiólise resulta na liberaþÒo ao torrente sanguíneo de elevadas concentraþ§es da proteína mioglobina de 17 kDa a qual filtra livremente através do glomérulo ultrapassando frequentemente a capacidade de reabsorþÒo do túbulo proximal. Portanto, a identificaþÒo de mioglobina em urina é uma ferramenta essencial que complementa outros parÔmetros bioquímicos no diagnóstico da doenþa. No presente trabalho, mediante a combinaþÒo de eletroforese em géis de agarose e imunofixaþÒo empregando anticorpos específicos, é fornecida evidÛncia direta da presenþa de mioglobina intacta na urina de um paciente com insuficiÛncia renal aguda associada a rabdomiólise desencadeada por efeito secundário de uma terapia redutora de lipídeos. Os dados eletroforéticos e imunoquímicos foram confirmados mediante sequÛncia N-terminal de aminoácidos, immunoblot e espectrometria de massa. A simples combinaþÒo de eletroforese e imunofixaþÒo fornece uma estratégia flexível que pode se estender O identificaþÒo de diversas proteínas envolvidas em proteinúrias de sobrecarga.(AU)

RESUMO

Rabdomiolisis es la destrucción de las fibras musculares y se caracteriza clínicamente por dolor, edema y debilidad muscular, orina color rojo-café (mioglobinuria) y la elevación por un corto período de la enzima creatinquinasa en sangre. Entre las múltiples causas de rabdomiolisis está el ejercicio intenso. La rabdomiolisis inducida por el ejercicio está escasamente documentada en la población pediátrica y en general requiere descartar alguna patología metabólica de base. Las complicaciones de la rabdomiolisis pueden ser múltiples y graves: falla renal, arritmias cardíacas, síndrome compartamental, coagulación intravascular diseminada, acidosis láctica, etc. La falla renal es consecuencia de la necrosis tubular aguda secundaria al taponamiento de los túbulos renales por la mioglobina, que puede llegar a ser fatal. Comunicamos nuestra experiencia con tres adolescentes que después de iniciar un programa de entrenamiento físico, desarrollaron intenso dolor y edema muscular constatándose un significativo aumento de la enzima creatinquinasa y edema muscular en la ultrasonografía de los músculos utilizados en el ejercicio. El estudio complementario descartó una patología metabólica de base en todos ellos. El tratamiento oportuno incluyó terapia sintomática e hidratación intravenosa. No se desarrolló insuficiencia renal en ninguno. Frente al incremento no controlado del entrenamiento físico, el diagnóstico oportuno de esta patología permite evitar sus graves consecuencias.

Rhabdomyolysis implies injury to the muscle fibers. The hallmark clinical manifestations are pain, oedema, muscle weakness and dark urine (myoglobinuria). There is an increase, for a short time, of the muscle enzyme creatine kinase in blood. Exercise induced rhabdomyolysis is one of various causes of rhabdomyolysis but has been rarely documented in the pediatric population. In general it is always important to exclude an underlying metabolic pathology. Complications of rhabdomyolysis can be many and severe: renal failure, cardiac arrhythmias, compartment syndrome, disseminated intravascular coagulation, lactic acidosis, etc.. Renal failure is the consequence of the acute tubular necrosis secondary to the obstruction of the renal tubules by myoglobin, which can become fatal. We report our experience with three adolescents that after starting a program of physical training, developed intense pain and muscle oedema at the ultrasound scan of the muscles involved in the exercise. Complementary studies excluded an underlying metabolic disease in all of them. The opportune treatment included symptomatic treatment and endovenous hydratation. Fortunately, none of them developed renal failure.

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Rabdomiólise é uma síndrome que afeta os músculos estriados, de curso altamente variável e que pode ser de difícil diagnóstico, requerendo um elevado grau de suspeição. A realização de uma anamnese minuciosa e o reconhecimento do contexto sociocultural do paciente podem ser fundamentais. Seu manejo consiste principalmente no diagnóstico precoce e na prevenção de suas complicações, potencialmente fatais. Este artigo apresenta um caso raro de rabdomiólise em um praticante de rapel e trekking, primeiramente, por isquemia e lesão direta, agravada em sua evolução por atividade física extenuante. É apresentada uma breve revisão sobre a fisiopatologia, as manifestações, o diagnóstico laboratorial e o tratamento da rabdomiólise por esforço e suas complicações.

Rhabdomyolysis is a syndrome which affects skeletal muscles, of variable course and whose diagnosis workup can be difficult, requiring a high grade of suspicion. A detailed anamnesis and sociocultural patient profile recognition may be fundamental. The management relies essentially on its early diagnosis and prevention of potentially harmful complications. This article describes an rare case of rhabdomyolysis in a practitioner of rappel and trekking, primarily, due to ischemia and direct injury, aggravated on its evolution by strenuous exercise. A brief review about exertional rhabdomyolysis pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, laboratory diagnosis, treatment and complications is presented.

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Objetivo: Describir un caso de rabdomiolisis y falla renal aguda asociado a la administración de quetiapina y escitalopram en un adulto joven en tratamiento por depresión recurrente. Métodos Descripción detallada del paciente y de su enfermedad actual, y revisión no sistemática de la literatura relevante. Resultados: Sujeto de 35 años con antecedentes de trastorno depresivo para el cual recibía escitalopram y quetiapina; presenta síntomas consistentes con rabdomiolisis y falla renal aguda luego de ingerir una sobredosis (900 mg) de quetiapina. La quetiapina y otros antipsicóticos han sido asociados a rabdomiolisis con o sin falla renal aguda. Igualmente, antidepresivos han sido asociados con episodios similares. El mecanismo que media tal asociación no ha sido encontrado. Conclusiones: Los antipsicóticos y los antidepresivos están asociados a rabdomiolisis en individuos con susceptibilidad biológica. Los efectos tóxicos de la serotonina pueden estar involucrados en tal asociación. Lo anterior obliga a su empleo cuidadoso en pacientes en riesgo de hiperfunción serotoninérgica.

Objective: To describe a case of quetipiane- and escitalopram-associated rhabdomyolysis and secondary acute renal failure in a young adult suffering from recurrent depression. Methods: detailed clinical description of the subject's case and relevant literature was reviewed. Results: A 35-year old male suffering from recurrent mayor depression treated with quetiapine and escitalopram, developed rhabdomyolysis and acute renal failure after ingesting an overdose of quetiapine (900 mg). Quetiapine and other antipsychotics have been related with rhabdomyolysis with or without renal failure in association or not with neuroleptic malignant syndromes. Similarly, antidepressant medications, specially venlafaxine but not escitalopram, have been associated with rhabdomyolysis. However, the exact mechanisms involved in this association have are not clear. Conclusions: Antipsychotic and antidepressant medications have been associated with rhabdomyolysis in vulnerable subjects. Serotonin-mediated toxicity has been proposed as a plausible etiological factor in these cases. Thus, psychotropic medications involving this neurotransmitter should be used cautiously in subjects at risk for serotonin hyperactivity.