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This study presents the first integrated study on total Hg (THg) level in surface soil (SS), bottom soil (BS), stream sediments (SD), lake sediments (LS), stream water (SW), and lake water (LW) of Itacaiúnas River Watershed (IRW), Brazil to investigate the source and distribution of Hg in different environmental media considering contrasts of geological domains and sub-basins and its potential ecological and human risk. Hg content in most of the soils and sediments were above the upper crustal average values (56 µg/kg), however, when compared to the legal limits set by the Resolution CONAMA (Conselho Nacional de Meio Ambiente: soil 500 µg/kg; sediment 486 µg/kg), only 1 soil sample from Parauapebas sub-basin and 4 sediment samples from Violão Lake exceeded the limit. None of the SW and LW samples (<0.2 µg/L; CONAMA limit for Class II freshwater) are markedly contaminated by Hg. The SS and BS show similar contents and spatial distribution of Hg with higher contents being registered mostly in the Itacaiúnas and Parauapebas sub-basins, which are closely correlated with SD. This suggests that Hg levels are largely of geogenic origin and anthropogenic effect is highly limited. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) results show that Hg is strongly associated with total organic carbon (TOC), loss on ignition (LOI), and SO3, indicating organic matter as the main factor controlling the distribution of Hg and this is the major cause of accentuated Hg enrichment in lake sediments. The ecological risk index revealed a low pollution risk for most of the solid samples, except 11% LS and <1.5% SS and SD samples, which registered moderate risk. Health risk assessment indicated no adverse non-carcinogenic health effect on either adults and children in terms of Hg contamination. This information will be useful for Hg risk assessment in the Carajás region and future environmental research in this direction in the Amazonia.

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In order to develop criteria to distinguish polluted from unpolluted materials in areas subjected to artisanal small-scale gold mining, background mercury values were established in 62 natural soil and saprolite profiles on 16 different parent rock types in the greenstone belt of Suriname. Hg values in pristine topsoils often amount to up to 200 µg/kg, about 100 times higher than Hg in common parent rocks. Additional analyses of 40 major and trace elements in two pilot profiles show that Hg values are strongly correlated to Fe, Cr and V values, which suggests that just as those elements Hg is residually enriched in topsoils by laterisation processes. In the deeper pallid zones of the profiles, Hg has often been leached almost completely together with iron by reducing groundwater action. In this way the range of Hg values within a single profile can be greater than between profiles. Maximum and average Hg values of 196 samples from the 16 different parent rock types fall apart into two main groups. Felsic parent rocks with predominance of quartz and feldspar have maximum Hg values around 100 µg/kg and averages around 50 µg/kg, mafic ones with less silica and higher Fe, Mg and Ca have maximum values around 250-300 µg/kg and averages around 150 µg/kg. In general the natural soil and saprolite Hg values are in the same order of magnitude as many published mine tailings and stream sediments, and therefore cannot be used to separate polluted from unpolluted materials.

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Silver (Ag) production in Hispanic America between the 16th and 19th centuries is thought to be one of the largest sources of anthropogenic mercury (Hg) emissions in history. Recent reviews of the chemistry behind the patio process, which used Hg amalgamation to extract Ag from ore, reveal that a large amount of the Hg may not have been immediately released to the atmosphere; instead, it may have been captured in the form of calomel (Hg2Cl2, in which Hg exists as monovalent HgI) and remained in the local environment. Here we show that Hg used in the patio process centuries ago in the Guanajuato Mining District of Mexico continues to elevate present-day concentrations of gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) throughout the region. In the ground-level air, GEM ranged from 8 to 454 ng m-3, exceeding the Northern Hemispheric average (~1.4 ng m-3) by up to two orders of magnitude. Much higher concentrations, up to 44,700 ng m-3, were found in the interstitial air of reprocessed mineral wastes, sediment, and soil. These highly elevated present-day GEM values are due, at least in part, to the disproportionation of legacy calomel, as supported by the presence of HgI in the reprocessed wastes and by the GEM release pattern from calomel disproportionation. Our results imply that the contribution of historical Ag refining to atmospheric Hg emissions must be re-evaluated to account for calomel and its subsequent disproportionation and releases of GEM to the present-day.

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Emissions of gaseous elemental mercury (GEM or Hg0) from different sources in urban areas are important subjects for environmental investigations. In this study, atmospheric Hg measurements were conducted to investigate air pollution in the urban environment by carrying out several mobile surveys in Mexico City. This work presents atmospheric concentrations of GEM in terms of diurnal variation trends and comparisons with criteria for pollutant concentrations such as CO, SO2, NO2, PM2.5, and PM10. The concentration of GEM was measured during the pre-rainy period by using a high-resolution active air sampler, the Lumex RA 915 M mercury analyzer. In comparison with those for other cities worldwide, the GEM concentrations were similar or slightly elevated, and they ranged from 0.20 to 30.23 ng m-3. However, the GEM concentration was significantly lower than those in contaminated areas, such as fluorescent lamp factory locations and gold mining zones. The GEM concentrations recorded in Mexico City did not exceed the WHO atmospheric limit of 200 ng m-3. We performed statistical correlation analysis which suggests equivalent sources between Hg and other atmospheric pollutants, mainly NO2 and SO2, emitted from urban combustion and industrial plants. The atmospheric Hg emissions are basically controlled by sunlight radiation, as well as having a direct relationship with meteorological parameters. The area of the city studied herein is characterized by high traffic density, cement production, and municipal solid waste (MSW) treatment, which constantly release GEM into the atmosphere. In this study, we included the simulation with the HYSPLIT dispersion model from three potential areas of GEM release. Emissions from industrial corridors and volcanic plumes localized outside the urban area contribute to the pollution of Mexico City and mainly affect the northern area during specific periods and climate conditions. Using the USEPA model, we assessed the human health risk resulting from exposure to inhaled GEM among residents of Mexico City. The results of the health risk assessment indicated no significant noncarcinogenic risk (hazard quotient (HQ) < 1) or consequent adverse effects for children and adults living in the sampling area over the study period. GEM emissions inventory data is necessary to improve our knowledge about the Hg contribution and effect in urban megacity areas with the objective to develop public safe policy and implementing the Minamata Convention.

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Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) flourishes along many tropical rivers, and it still requires proper documentation in many countries, as well as interpretation in terms of rational resource exploitation and wildlife preservation. In this study we used remote sensing techniques to analyze two representative examples of ASGM: one along the Marupa River in Brazil (Tapajós Domain) and another one along the Kahayan River in Indonesia (Central Kalimantan). The documented spatial extent of ASGM is ~9175 km2 along the Marupa River and ~30,427 km2 along the Kahayan River. It was established these activities change rapidly (2-3 years) in space. Although active and inactive sites occur in both areas, a great number of inactive sites distinguish the Marupa River. It is very crucial that ASGM along the Marupa and Kahayan rivers link strongly to watercourse meanders, but also changes river valley morphology. This is an interesting evidence of coupled fluvial-anthropic morphodynamics of meandering river valleys. Geological phenomena represented in the study areas include gold resource exploitation (economic phenomenon), landforms and their dynamics (geomorphological phenomenon), and mercury environmental pollution (geochemical phenomenon). Due to remarkable spatial extent and evident interconnection, these phenomena seem to be unique and, thus, constituting geological heritage. Identification of the latter means that ASGM sites add value to the local environment. A paradox is that illegal and mercury-releasing ASGM needs termination, but such an action will result in the loss of the noted geological heritage value. Solution to this paradox requires careful development of plans for local management. However, it is clear that the presence of the noted heritage requires turning more attention to ASGM and their natural (river valley) context.

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This scoping study presents an investigation of the total and bioaccessible mercury concentrations in road dust (RD) from three international urban sites, where a one-off sampling campaign was conducted at each. This was done to address the hypothesis that the matrix in which mercury is found influences its ability to become accessible to the body once inhaled. For that purpose, the samples were analysed for total and pulmonary bioaccessible mercury and the data compared to the chemical structure of individual particles by SEM. The results obtained from this study suggest that a high mercury content does not necessarily equate to high bioaccessibility, a phenomenon which could be ascribed to the chemical character of the individual particles. It was found that the Manchester samples contained more pulmonary soluble mercury species (as determined by elemental associations of Hg and Cl) in comparison to the other two samples, Curitiba, Brazil, and Johannesburg, South Africa. This finding ultimately underlines the necessity to conduct a site-specific in-depth analysis of RD, to determine the concentration, chemical structure and molecular speciation of the materials within the complex matrix of RD. Therefore, rather than simply assuming that higher bulk concentrations equate to more significant potential human health concerns, the leaching potential of the metal/element in its specific form (for example as a mineral) should be ascertained. The importance of individual particle behaviour in the determination of human health risk is therefore highlighted.

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Mercury and Lead concentrations obtained by ICP-OAS analysis of human hair from riverside communities along the Orinoco river in the Amazon state (Venezuela) were compared with those from Caracas, Venezuela. Taking into account the characteristics of these two environments and the values of the average concentrations of Mercury and Lead, baselines were established suggesting that gold mining activity near the Orinoco river is responsible for the high levels of Mercury in hair from the Amazon state, whereas automobile activity is responsible for high levels of Lead in hair in Caracas.

Concentrações de mercúrio e chumbo obtidas pela análise ICP-OAS de amostras de cabelo humano de comunidades ribeirinhas ao longo do rio Orinoco no estado de Amazonas (Venezuela) foram comparadas com outras de Caracas, Venezuela. Levando em consideração as características desses dois ambientes e os valores das concentrações médias de mercúrio e chumbo, foram estabelecidas linhas basais que sugerem que as atividades de minério de ouro próximo ao rio Orinoco são responsáveis pelos altos conteúdos de mercúrio em cabelo no estado de Amazonas. Entretanto, a indústria automotriz é responsável pelo alto conteúdo de chumbo em cabelo em Caracas.

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RESUMO

Mercury and Lead concentrations obtained by ICP-OAS analysis of human hair from riverside communities along the Orinoco river in the Amazon state (Venezuela) were compared with those from Caracas, Venezuela. Taking into account the characteristics of these two environments and the values of the average concentrations of Mercury and Lead, baselines were established suggesting that gold mining activity near the Orinoco river is responsible for the high levels of Mercury in hair from the Amazon state, whereas automobile activity is responsible for high levels of Lead in hair in Caracas.

Concentrações de mercúrio e chumbo obtidas pela análise ICP-OAS de amostras de cabelo humano de comunidades ribeirinhas ao longo do rio Orinoco no estado de Amazonas (Venezuela) foram comparadas com outras de Caracas, Venezuela. Levando em consideração as características desses dois ambientes e os valores das concentrações médias de mercúrio e chumbo, foram estabelecidas linhas basais que sugerem que as atividades de minério de ouro próximo ao rio Orinoco são responsáveis pelos altos conteúdos de mercúrio em cabelo no estado de Amazonas. Entretanto, a indústria automotriz é responsável pelo alto conteúdo de chumbo em cabelo em Caracas.