RESUMO

While eye tracking is a technique commonly used in the experimental study of higher-level perceptual processes such as visual search, working memory, reading, and scene exploration, its use for the quantification of basic visual functions (visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, color vision, motion detection) is less explored. The use of eye movement features as dependent variables in a psychophysical investigation can serve multiple roles. They can be central in studies with neurological patients or infants that cannot comply with verbal instructions, understand task demands, and/or emit manual responses. The technique may also serve a complementary role, determining the conditions under which a manual or verbal response is given, such as stimulus position in the visual field, or it can afford the analysis of new dependent variables, such as the time interval between oculomotor and manual responses. Our objective is to review the literature that applied the eye tracking technique to psychophysical problems. The two questions our review raises are: can eye movements (reflex or voluntary) be an objective index of stimulus detection in psychophysical tasks? If so, under what conditions, and how does it compare with traditional paradigms requiring manual responses? Our (non-systematic) methodological review selected studies that used video-oculography as the technique of choice and had a basic visual function as their primary object of investigation. Studies satisfying those criteria were then categorized into four broad classes reflecting their main research interest: (1) stimulus detection and threshold estimation, (2) the effects of stimulus properties on fixational eye movements, (3) the effects of eye movements on perception, and (4) visual field assessment. The reviewed studies support the idea that eye tracking is a valuable technique for the study of basic perceptual processes. We discuss methodological characteristics within each of the proposed classification area, with the objective of informing future task design.

RESUMO

One of the most widely used procedures applied to non-human animals or pre-linguistic humans is the "violation of expectation paradigm". Curiously there is almost no discussion in the philosophical literature about it. Our objective will be to provide a first approach to the meta-theoretical nature of the assumptions behind the procedure that appeals to the violation of expectation and to extract some consequences. We show that behind them exists an empirical principle that affirms that the violation of the expectation of certain mental rules generates surprise. We then proceeded to discuss the nature of these "mental rules". We show that, as is often the case with theoretical concepts proposed by theories, they do not have a fixed interpretation. This will allow us to show that the usual relationship found in the developmental psychology literature between this experimental paradigm and cognitive approaches (which interpret experimental results in terms of higher-level mental activities) is not necessary. Finally, we relate this experimental design with the mark test and the inequity aversion test and discuss the possible ampliation of the application of the empirical principle of violation of expectation.

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RESUMO

A partir do conceito de lugar e não-lugar de Marc Augé, tomado emprestado da geografia e da antropologia, discutiremos o uso do espaço virtual como possibilidade de diferentes formas de subjetivação. A importância que os territórios físicos e virtuais adquirem na forma como nos constituímos, os usos que fazemos de ambos e como navegamos nesses espaços serão analisados à luz das contribuições de Pierre Lévy e de Donald Winnicott. Tomando Winnicott como interlocutor no campo psicanalítico, em suas postulações acerca do olhar e da localização da experiência cultural, vamos investigar o lugar da experiência virtual como possibilidade de um novo território de existência. Se, para Pierre Lévy, a virtualidade está estritamente vinculada à criatividade, para Winnicott, antes de olhar criativamente o mundo, o indivíduo deve te r internalizado a experiência de ter sido olhado. Trata-se, portanto, de discutir as múltiplas possibilidades que o mundo virtual pode oferecer como experiência de olhar ou de não ser visto. Em outras palavras, a leitura da internet como um lugar ou não-lugar dependerá dos usos que o sujeito faz de seus recursos, da relação que estabelece com os mesmos e consigo mesmo.

Based on Marc Augé's concept of places and non-places, and borrowing from Geography and Anthropology, we shall discuss the use of virtual space as a possibility of different forms of subjectivity. The importance that physical and virtual territories have acquired in the way we are made, the uses we make of both and how we navigate these spaces will be analyzed in the light of Pierre Lévy's and Donald Winnicott's contributions. Taking Winnicott as an interlocutor in the psychoanalytic field, in his postulations about the perspective and the location of cultural experiences, we will investigate the place of virtual experience as the possibility of a new territory of existence. To Pierre Lévy, virtuality is closely linked to creativity; Winnicott, on the other hand, tells us that, in order to look at the world in a creative way, an individual must, above all, have internalized the experience of being looked at. It is therefore the case of discussing the many opportunities that the virtual world can offer as an experience of looking or of not being seen. That is, reading the internet as a place or a non-place will depend on the uses which an individual makes of its resources, and on the relationship established with them and with him or herself.

Desde el concepto de lugar y no lugar citado por Marc Augé y que proviene de la geografía y de la antropología, discutiremos el uso del espacio virtual como una posibilidad de diferentes formas de subjetivación. La importancia que adquieren los territorios físicos y virtuales en la forma en que nos constituimos, los usos que les damos y cómo navegamos en estos espacios se analizarán a la luz de los aportes de Pierre Lévy y de Donald Winnicott. Considerando a Winnicott como interlocutor en el campo psicoanalítico, en sus postulados sobre la mirada y la ubicación de la experiencia cultural, vamos a investigar el lugar de la experiencia virtual como un nuevo territorio posible de existencia. Si para Pierre Lévy la virtualidad está íntimamente relacionada a la creatividad, Winicott nos dice que el individuo, para ver el mundo creativamente, antes que nada, debe haber internalizado la experiencia de haber sido observado. Se trata entonces de discutir las múltiples posibilidades que el mundo virtual puede ofrecer como experiencia de observar o de no ser visto. Es decir, la lectura del internet como un lugar o no lugar dependerá del uso de los recursos por parte del individuo, de la relación que establece con los mismos y consigo mismo.

RESUMO

Partindo do episódio de esquecimento de nomes próprios descrito por Freud e que ficou conhecido como o caso Signorelli, o autor faz uma análise do mesmo não sob a vertente significante, mas sob a vertente do objeto olhar, cuja epifania se dá sob a forma do “überdeutlich”.(AU)

Considerating the episode of the lapse of proper names, described by Freud and known as "Signorelli case", the author analyses the same, not from the point of view of the significant, but from the point of view of "the look object", whose epiphany happens under the form of "überdeutlich".(AU)

RESUMO

La medición de la agudeza visual en niños representa un importante reto para el optómetra por ser laboriosa y requerir conocimiento y paciencia. Según el estímulo, la agudeza visual puede dividirse en tres tipos: de detección, de resolución y de reconocimiento. Los valores de estas pueden ser diferentes y se alteran en diferente proporción en presencia de problemas visuales. El presente artículo hace una revisión de los tests de agudeza visual para niños, sobre los que se han realizado gran número de investigaciones en los últimos años: Teller, Cardiff, Lea, HOTV y las cartillas logMAR que podrían emplearse en el grupo de escolares.Conclusiones: las pruebas contempladas en esta revisión no son necesariamente las más utilizadoas en nuestra práctica clínica cotidiana; sin embargo, la actividad investigativa en torno a éstas ha aportado a la construcción de protocolos diagnósticos. El referente para una mejor práctica clínica debe ser la optometría basada en la evidencia, ya que ésta permite a los profesionales disponer de nuevos elementos de juicio objetivos, con fundamento científico, que contribuyan a la elección de la mejor alternativa para determinar la agudeza visual en los niños. El optómetra debe seguir rigurosamente los protocolos de evaluación de la agudeza visual para dar a sus mediciones mayor confiabilidad y analizar los resultados obtenidos dentro del contexto de la historia clínica. Los métodos para la evaluación de la agudeza visual pueden adaptarse de acuerdo con las habilidades, el conocimiento y la experiencia del niño que va a examinarse. Con esta revisión se evidencia la importancia de realizar estudios sobre la aplicación de estos tests en nuestro medio con el fin de evaluar su confiabilidad y utilidad en nuestros pacientes.

The visual acuity measurement in children is an important Challenger for the optometrist, given de complexity of the task and to require knowledge and patience. According to the stimulus, the visual acuity can be divided in three types: detection, resolution and recognition. The values of these can be different and they are altered in different proportion in the presence of visual problems. The present article makes an overhaul of the test of the visual acuity for children which years have generated great number of investigations in the past years: Teller, Cardiff, Lea, HOTV and logMAR charts that could be used in the school age group.Conclusions: The tests reviewed are not necessarily used commonly used our clinical daily practice, nevertheless the investigative activity concerning these has reached in the construction of diagnostic protocols. The reference for a better clinical practice must be the optometry based on the evidence, since this one allows to the professionals to have new facts that contribute to the election of the best alternative to determine the visual acuity in the children. The optometrist a must follow rigorously the protocols of evaluation of the visual acuity to give to measurements major reliability and to analyze the results obtained inside the context of the history. The methods for the evaluation of the visual acuity can be adapted in agreement with the skills, knowledge and experience of the child being examinated. There is evident the importance of realizing studies on the application of these test in order to evaluate their reliability and utility in our patients

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