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This study investigates the dynamic associations among carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, non-renewable energy production from petroleum derivatives, financial development, and healthcare expenditures to improve environmental quality. This research has employed the balanced annual panel of thirty (30) Organizations for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries' data set and applied panel vector autoregression (VAR) method depending on the generalized method of moments (GMM). Furthermore, the empirical findings reveal that health spending and CO2 emissions have a favorable bidirectional link, but there is no indication that health spending promotes power generation. The results demonstrate that increased energy consumption and productions affect pollution, and higher CO2 emissions increase healthcare costs. Whereas, energy consumption, financial development, and healthcare expenditures have a positive toward environmental quality.

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AIM: To evaluate direct medical costs incurred by patients with diabetes in the periods before and after experiencing a microvascular complication from a Brazilian public healthcare system perspective. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective, observational study using the Brazilian Unified Health System (DATASUS) database. Direct medical costs (hospitalization and outpatient) were extracted for patients with evidence of diabetes and a microvascular complication (January 2012-December 2018) and converted to 2019 US Dollars (USD). Length of hospital stays was also extracted. Mixed-effects logistic regression explored associations between demographic/clinical characteristics and incurrence of high direct medical costs (defined as the highest tertile of the annual costs ranked by median cost in the total population). RESULTS: In total, 2,096 patients with diabetes experienced a microvascular complication and met study inclusion/exclusion criteria. Median [interquartile range] annual costs (USD/patient) were 176.3 [91.0; 481.2] at baseline, increasing to 1,678.5 [287.0; 6,908.4] and 5,172.4 [274.8; 7,395.9] in the first and second year after the complication, respectively. Median hospital stay was 2.0 and 3.0 days at baseline and in the first year, respectively. The odds of incurring high costs were substantially elevated in the first and second years (odds ratios of 69.9 and 84.7, respectively, vs. baseline, both p < .001). LIMITATIONS: The DATASUS database covers secondary and tertiary care (not primary), adding selection bias to our sample. Additionally, our findings may not apply to the entire Brazilian population, as around 25% have some access to private healthcare. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates a large increase in costs, from the perspective of the Brazilian public healthcare system, in patients with diabetes after experiencing a microvascular complication compared with pre-complication costs. In addition to providing up-to-date cost estimates, our findings highlight the need to appraise the cost-effectiveness of evidence-based strategies that reduce the risk of diabetes-related microvascular complications in Brazilian patients.

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BACKGROUND: There are few studies on the impact of out-of-pocket mental health care expenditures and sociodemographic factors on the probability of Mexican households to incur catastrophic healthcare expenditures (CHE). OBJECTIVE: The goal of the present study was to estimate the incidence of CHE and its main determinants among the households of persons with mental disorders (MD) in Mexico. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted, including 387 households of persons with MD. The estimation of the CHE was obtained by the health expenditure distribution method. A Logistic Regression (LR) was used to identify the determinants of probability variation of CHE occurrence. Since we expected a proportion of CHE between 20% and 80%, we assume linearity in the probability function, therefore we additionally used an Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) model. RESULTS: In our sample, the incidence of CHE was 34.8%. The two mental illnesses most frequently associated with CHE were schizophrenia and hyperactive disorder (35.5% and 32.6% of CHE cases, respectively). The regression coefficients showed that for each unit (US$53.77) increase in income, the probability of CHE was reduced by 8.6%, while for each unit increase in hospitalization or medication expenditures, the probability of CHE increased by 12.9% or 19%, respectively. For each additional household member, the probability of CHE increased by 3%, and households with a male patient had a 7% greater probability of CHE. CONCLUSION: Household income, household size, hospitalization and medication expenses, and sex of the patient were significant predictors of CHE for households caring for a person with MD.

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Objective: To examine whether the effect of population aging on healthcare expenditures as a share of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is attenuated in more educated countries. Method: The analysis is based on a dataset of 22 Latin American countries between 1995 and 2013. We estimate panel data models with country and time fixed effects, and control for potential nonlinear effects of population aging on health expenditure. Results: We find population aging increases health expenditure as a share of GDP in economies characterized by low levels of education, but this effect is mitigated in economies with higher levels of education. Results are driven by private health expenditures. Discussion: Results suggest population aging and education have a stronger influence on healthcare expenditures in less developed countries. This finding is important in a context in which the rapid growth of the aging population is likely to lead to significant costs in terms of health expenditures, but less so in more educated societies.

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Introdução: A tuberculose constitui um problema de saúde pública e causa grande impacto na vida das pessoas, principalmente se viverem em situação de vulnerabilidade social. Objetivos: Identificar as redes sociais primária e secundária da pessoa com tuberculose; identificar a percepção da pessoa com tuberculose sobre o impacto do diagnóstico nos gastos diretos e indiretos para o tratamento da doença e; descrever o tipo de suporte das redes sociais primária e secundária da pessoa com tuberculose. Método: Pesquisa qualitativa fundamentada em um referencial teórico-metodológico de rede social, realizada mediante entrevista semiestruturada com 33 pessoas diagnosticados com tuberculose atendidas em duas unidades básicas de saúde do Rio de Janeiro, RJ, no período de janeiro a março de 2020. Os dados foram analisados com base na técnica de análise de conteúdo temática de Bardin. Resultados: Os resultados demonstraram que os participantes obtiveram impacto financeiro no orçamento familiar, tendo em vista as demandas de transporte alternativo no deslocamento até as unidades de saúde, com alimentação e realização de exames diagnósticos e complementares. Outro fator que contribuiu para esse impacto foi a perda do vínculo empregatício devido às dificuldades provenientes dos sinais e sintomas da doença, à redução das horas de trabalho e à diminuição da renda. Nesse contexto, verificou-se que os participantes contaram com o apoio da rede social primária, composta por familiares, amigos, colegas e vizinhos e manifestaram a expectativa de receber algum tipo de auxílio do programa social governamental ou de transferência de renda. Conclusão: Neste estudo foram destacados aspectos referentes à percepção das pessoas com tuberculose sobre impacto do diagnóstico nos seus gastos durante o tratamento da doença. O apoio de familiares e amigos foi fundamental para a manutenção do orçamento familiar, visto que as dificuldades evidenciadas implicam na falta de conexão com diferentes serviços de saúde e programas de benefícios sociais e governamentais durante a fase de tratamento da tuberculose que poderiam reduzir os riscos de agravamento da doença, bem como a manutenção das despesas e a reorganização do orçamento familiar desses usuários.

Introduction: Tuberculosis constitutes a public health issue, and causes great impact on people's lives, especially if they live in a situation of social vulnerability. Objectives: To identify the primary and secondary social network of the person with tuberculosis; To identify the perception of the person with tuberculosis about the impact of the diagnosis on the direct and indirect expenses for the treatment of the disease; and To describe the type of support of the primary and secondary social network of the person with tuberculosis. Method: This is a qualitative research based on the theoretical and methodological social network, done through a semi-structured poll with 33 persons that were diagnosed with tuberculosis and assisted at two basic healthcare units of Rio de Janeiro, RJ, in the period from January to March 2020. Data was analyzed based on the Bardin's thematic content analysis technique. Results: The results showed that the participants had financial impact on the family budget, given the demands of alternative transportation to the healthcare units, of food and with diagnostic and complementary tests. Another factor that contributed to this impact was the loss of employment due to difficulties arising from the signs and symptoms of the disease, to reduced working hours, and to reduced income. In this context, it was found that participants relied on the support of their primary social network, composed of family, friends, colleagues and neighbors, and expressed the expectation of receiving some type of assistance from a government social program or cash transfer. Conclusion: This study highlighted aspects related to the perception of people with tuberculosis about the impact of diagnosis on their expenses during the treatment of the disease. The support of family and friends was essential for the maintenance of the family budget, since the difficulties evidenced implied a lack of connection with different healthcare services and social and governmental benefit programs during the stage of tuberculosis treatment that could reduce the risks of worsening the disease, as well as the maintenance of expenses and the reorganization of the family budget of these users.

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Aims: To evaluate costs in patients with diabetes who experienced a macrovascular complication from a Brazilian public healthcare system perspective.Materials and methods: A retrospective, observational study that utilized the database of the Brazilian Unified Health System (DATASUS). Data for direct medical costs (hospitalization and outpatient) were extracted for patients with diabetes and a macrovascular complication (1 January 2012-31 December 2018) and converted to US Dollars (2019 USD). Mixed-effects logistic regression explored associations between demographic and clinical characteristics with the incurrence of high direct medical costs.Results: In total, 1,668 (0.2%) patients with diabetes met study inclusion criteria and experienced a macrovascular complication, either alone (N = 1,193) or together with a microvascular complication (N = 475). Median [95% CI] annual costs (USD/patient) were 130.5 [90.7; 264.2] at baseline, increasing to 334.0 [182.2; 923.5] in the first year after the complication. The odds of incurring high costs were significantly elevated in the first and second year (vs. baseline), and in patients who experienced a macrovascular and microvascular complication (vs. macrovascular alone) (all p < 0.001).Limitations: The DATASUS database does not cover primary care (it covers secondary and tertiary care), adding a selection bias to the sample. Additionally, our findings may not be representative of the entire Brazilian population given that approximately 75% of the population of Brazil depend exclusively on the SUS, while the remaining 25% have some access to private healthcare.Conclusions: This study has demonstrated higher medical costs from the perspective of the Brazilian public healthcare system in patients with diabetes after experiencing a macrovascular complication, either alone or in conjunction with a microvascular complication, in comparison with costs before the complication(s). In addition to providing up-to-date cost estimates, our findings highlight the need to implement strategies to reduce the cardiovascular risk in Brazilian patients with diabetes and drive cost savings.

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Objetivo: Avaliar o consumo de recursos relacionado ao tratamento de pacientes cirróticos com o vírus da Hepatite C (HCV) genótipo 1 (G1) e compará-lo ao de pacientes com cirrose não relacionada ao HCV no SUS. Métodos: Foram levantadas no banco de dados do DataSUS as hospitalizações por CID de cirrose entre 2008 e 2012. Dentre estas hospitalizações, foram levantados os pacientes com histórico de tratamento com interferon peguilado, no mesmo período, para identificar pacientescom HCV G1 prévia, como definido pelo Protocolo Clínico e Diretrizes Terapêuticas (PCDT) do SUS. As coortes de pacientes com ou sem HCV prévio (CH+HCV e CH-HCV) foram acompanhadas por 60 meses e comparadas em termos de uso de recursos. Para a avaliação econômica, custos unitários de medicamentos foram analisados a partir do Portal de Compras Governamentais e, para valoração de hospitalizações, a partir do DataSUS. Resultados: Gastos com hospitalização de pacientes cirróticossomaram aproximadamente R$ 108 milhões em 2012, podendo ser observado um aumento de 75% no gasto comparado a 2008. A maioria dos pacientes internados por CH com ou sem HCV estava entre as idades de 45 e 64 anos, sendo a média de idade de 52 anos, e grande parte do gênero masculino. Os gastos médios com hospitalizações por paciente foram de R$ 6.583,00 nos pacientes do grupo CH+HCV versus R$ 3.496,00 nos pacientes do grupo CH-HCV (p < 0,001). Aproximadamente 5% dos pacientes CH-HCV receberam transplante hepático comparado com 7% dospacientes CH+HCV. O custo relacionado ao transplante na população CH+HCV representou 78% do custo total contra 67% dos pacientes CH-HCV, sendo o custo médio atribuído a transplantes nos pacientes CH+HCV 17% superior à população sem HCV. Conclusão: Os custos hospitalares entre os pacientes cirróticos relacionados ou não ao HCV apresentaram uma distribuição diferente entre si e significativa para a perspectiva do SUS.

Objective: Evaluate resource consumption related to the treatment of cirrhotic patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1 (G1) and compare to patients with cirrhosis not related to HCV in the Brazilian public healthcare system (SUS). Methods: Hospitalizations for the diagnosis of cirrhosis were obtained from DatasSUS between 2008 and 2012. Among these hospitalizations, patients with a history of treatment with pegylated interferon in the same period were evaluated, to identify patients with previous HCV G1, as defined by the Clinical Protocol and Therapeutic Guideline (PCDT)from SUS. The cohorts of patients with or without previous HCV (CH+HCV and CH-HCV) were followed for 60 months and compared in terms of resource use. For the economic evaluation, unit costs of medications were analyzed based on the Government Procurement Portal and costs of hospitalization from DataSUS. Results: Hospitalization expenditures of cirrhotic patients totaled approximately R$108 million in 2012, with an increase of 75% in spending compared to 2008. Most patients admitted for CH with or without HCV were between the ages of 45 and 64 years, with a mean age of 52 years and were mostly male. Approximately 5% of patients CH-HCV received liver transplantation compared to 7% of patients CH+HCV. Costs related to transplantation in the CH+HCV populationaccounted for 78% of the total cost compared to 67% among CH-HCV patients, being the average transplantation cost 17% higher in patients CH+HCV when compared to the population without HCV. Conclusion: Hospitalization costs among cirrhotic patients with or without prior treatment of HCV showed a different distribution and differences were significant for the SUS perspective.

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