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Resumo O Fórum para a Cooperação Econômica e Comercial entre a China e os Países de Língua Portuguesa, mais conhecido como Fórum de Macau, fundado em 2003, atua há 20 anos como elo entre a China e os países lusófonos. Desde 2016, o Secretariado Permanente do Fórum de Macau publica um anuário destacando as principais atividades realizadas pelo mesmo no ano anterior. Este artigo tem como foco analisar o papel do Fórum de Macau como organizador e mediador de iniciativas de Saúde Global através da análise de todos os artigos publicados em seus anuários entre 2016 e 2023. Foram encontradas 34 ocorrências de artigos tratando de algum tema relacionado à área da saúde, com quase dois terços relacionados à medicina tradicional chinesa, relatos de organização frequente de atividades que fomentam a cooperação internacional em saúde, além de uma ativa participação durante o primeiro ano da pandemia de Covid-19. O Fórum de Macau é uma plataforma multilateral de diálogo entre a China, Macau e o mundo de fala portuguesa, tendo a pauta da saúde e a divulgação da medicina tradicional chinesa ocupado um espaço de destaque em seu anuário.

Abstract The Forum for Economic and Trade Cooperation between China and Portuguese-speaking Countries, better known as Forum Macao, founded in 2003, has been acting as a link between China and Portuguese-speaking countries for 20 years. Since 2016, the Permanent Secretariat of Forum Macao has published a yearbook highlighting the main activities it carried out in the previous year. This article focuses on analyzing Forum Macao's role as an organizer and mediator of Global Health initiatives by analyzing all the articles published in its yearbooks between 2016 and 2023. We found 34 articles dealing with a health-related topic, with almost two thirds related to traditional Chinese medicine, reports of frequent organization of activities that foster international cooperation in health, as well as active participation during the first year of the Covid-19 pandemic. Forum Macao is a multilateral platform for dialogue between China, Macao and the Portuguese-speaking world, with the health agenda and the dissemination of traditional Chinese medicine occupying a prominent place in its yearbook.

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RESUMO Este artigo analisa como a saúde entrou na política externa brasileira entre 1995 e 2010 e apoiou a posição internacional do País, utilizando o enfoque de análise de políticas. Essa questão raramente é examinada na literatura brasileira sobre diplomacia da saúde. A partir de revisão de literatura, análise documental e entrevistas com atores-chave, examinamos as políticas impulsionadas por complexos processos históricos de mudança no Brasil. Há importantes inter-relações entre política externa e política social, incluindo saúde. Durante os governos Lula (2003-2010), a internacionalização das políticas domésticas brasileiras, vinculadas à cooperação Sul-Sul, teve papel central. A saúde na agenda da política externa foi um importante suporte à crescente presença internacional do Brasil. Esses desenvolvimentos foram possibilitados pelo ativismo e comprometimento de diversos atores estatais e não estatais, que atuaram em dois níveis: advocacia nacional e transnacional e atividades coordenadas entre representantes do governo, incluindo diplomatas, e atores da sociedade civil. O principal argumento deste estudo é que as políticas nacionais e internacionais são interrelacionadas nesse processo, e a dinâmica doméstica e o engajamento societal são essenciais, mas não suficientes: escolhas governamentais são também determinantes. Os arranjos institucionais e políticos mudaram em diferentes conjunturas e são constantemente propensos a conflitos e mudanças.

ABSTRACT This article analyses, from a policy analysis approach, how health entered Brazilian foreign policy between 1995 and 2010 and supported the country's international position, which is rarely explored in the literature on Brazilian health diplomacy. By drawing on literature review, document analysis and key-actor interviews, we examined policies triggered by far-reaching and complex historical change processes in Brazil. We find significant interrelationships between foreign policy and social policy, including health. The internationalization of Brazilian domestic policies, and South-South cooperation, played a central role during Lula governments (2003-2010). Health found its way into the foreign policy agenda to support Brazil's growing international presence. These developments were made possible by the activism and engagement of several of State and non-State actors working on two levels: national and transnational advocacy, and coordinated activities of government representatives, including Brazilian diplomats, and civil society activists. The main argument of this study is that national and international policies are intertwined in this process and that domestic dynamics and societal engagement are essential but more is needed: governmental choices are also determinant. Institutional arrangements and policies shift in different conjunctures and are constantly prone to conflicts and change.

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Resumo Este artigo aborda a participação do BRICS na produção e distribuição de vacinas contra covid-19 durante 2020 e 2021, e o compromisso com a priorização do acesso aos países do Sul Global. Faz, ainda, uma reflexão sobre como o grupo lidou com os desafios do compartilhamento de tecnologias e do empoderamento econômico dos países periféricos, sinalizando a disputa de espaço entre a diplomacia da vacina e os interesses econômicos das nações. A análise se deu com base em relatórios institucionais, dados documentais jornalísticos e científicos, e no diálogo destes com os conhecimentos da Diplomacia da Saúde e da Cooperação Internacional em Saúde, demonstrando a complexidade e os desafios do mundo após o surgimento do vírus SARS-CoV-2 e suas variantes.

Abstract This study describes the participation of the BRICS in the production and distribution of COVID-19 vaccines in 2020 and 2021 and its commitment to prioritizing access by the countries of the Global South. It also reflects on how the Group dealt with the challenges of technology sharing and the economic empowerment of peripheral countries, signaling the space dispute between vaccine diplomacy and the economic interests of nations. This analysis was based on institutional reports, journalistic and scientific documentary data, and their dialogue with the knowledge of Health Diplomacy and International Health Cooperation, showing the complexity and challenges of the world after the emergence of the SARSCoV-2 virus and its variables.

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BACKGROUND: Global health diplomacy (GHD) focuses on the actions taken by diverse stakeholders from different nations -governments, multilateral agents, and civil society- to phenomena that can affect population health and its determinants beyond national borders. Although the literature on conceptual advancements of GHD exists, empirical studies about how health becomes an issue of relevance for foreign policy are scarce. We present an analysis of the entry processes of health into the foreign policy and diplomatic domains in Mexico from the perspective of key informants of three different sectors. METHODS: A purposive sample of high-rank representatives of three sectors involved in GHD was designed: Two from Health Sector (HS), four from Foreign Affairs Sector (FAS), and three from Non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Nine semi-structured interviews were conducted exploring the topics of: (1) Health concerns entering diplomatic and foreign policy; (2) Processes that allow actors to influence foreign policy and negotiation and; (3) Impact of multilateral negotiations on decision-making at the national level. RESULTS: Our analysis suggests that GHD in Mexico is hierarchically driven by the FAS and health concerns only enter foreign policy when they are relevant to national priorities (such as trade or security). HS possesses a lesser degree of influence in GHD, serving as an instance of consultation for the FAS when deciding on health-related issues at global meetings (i.e., World Health Assembly). NGOs resort to lobbying, advocacy, networking, and coalition-working practices with other sectors (academy, think-tanks) to prevent harmful impacts on local health from multilateral decisions and as a mean to compensate its power asymmetry for influencing GHD processes in relation to the government. CONCLUSIONS: GHD in Mexico occurs in a context of asymmetric power relationships where government actors have the strongest influence. However, NGOs' experience in raising awareness of health risks needs to be weighted by government decision-makers. This situation calls for capacity building on intersectoral communication and coordination to create formal mechanisms of GHD practices, including the professionalization and training on GHD among government agencies.

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Abstract Tracing the pathways of cooperation in health in sub-Saharan Africa from hesitant exchanges to institutionalized dimensions from the 1920s to the early 1960s, this article addresses regional dynamics in health diplomacy which have so far been under-researched. The evolution thereof from early beginnings with the League of Nations Health Organization to the Commission for Technical Assistance South of the Sahara and the World Health Organization's Regional Office for Africa, shows how bilateral dimensions were superseded by WHO's multilateral model of regional cooperation in health. Alignments, divergences, and outcomes are explored with respect to the strategies and policies pursued by colonial powers and independent African states regarding inter-regional relations, and their implications for public health and epidemiological interventions.

Resumo Trilhando os caminhos da cooperação sanitária na África subsaariana, de intercâmbios incertos a dimensões institucionalizadas dos anos 1920 até início dos anos 1960, este artigo aborda a dinâmica regional na diplomacia sanitária que, até o momento, carece de pesquisas. A evolução, desde os primórdios da Organização da Saúde da Liga das Nações até a Cooperação Técnica na África Subsaariana e o Escritório Regional da África da OMS, demonstra como dimensões bilaterais foram substituídas pelo modelo multilateral da OMS de cooperação sanitária regional. São analisados alinhamentos, divergências e resultados de estratégias e políticas empregados por potências coloniais e Estados africanos independentes em relações inter-regionais, bem como suas implicações em intervenções epidemiológicas e de saúde pública.

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Resumo: À medida que a pandemia de COVID-19 se espalhou pelo mundo em 2020, populações, autoridades e instituições locais e globais de governança em saúde foram atingidas de maneira distinta. A chamada Diplomacia em Saúde Global e a "paradiplomacia" tornaram-se instrumentos e arenas de relevância diante dos desafios trazidos pela pandemia, sobretudo para atores não estatais ou subnacionais. Este Ensaio analisa o caso do Estado do Maranhão, Brasil, no contexto da pandemia, que, por meio de uma "operação de guerra", comprou no mercado internacional mais de cem respiradores à revelia do Governo Federal, em um momento de acirrada competição internacional por materiais e equipamentos médicos. O Ensaio investiga os principais aspectos, contextos, razões, fatores, atores e ações que contextualizam a operação realizada pelo Estado do Maranhão, como uma atividade paradiplomática e de Diplomacia em Saúde Global de um ente subnacional no Brasil. Analisamos os conceitos citados à luz da literatura sobre o tema e estudamos a atuação do Maranhão a partir do cruzamento de dados de documentos, pronunciamentos e notícias. Concluímos que o caso maranhense ilustra a capacidade de entes locais responderem às emergências de cunho global, principalmente em contextos de ineficácia ou ausência do executivo federal, legitimando ações independentes que visem à proteção da vida.

Resumen: A medida que la pandemia de COVID-19 se extendió por el mundo en 2020, poblaciones, autoridades e instituciones locales y globales de gobernanza en salud se vieron afectadas de manera distinta. La llamada Diplomacia en Salud Global y la "paradiplomacia" se convirtieron en instrumentos y campos de relevancia ante los desafíos presentados por la pandemia, sobre todo para actores no estatales o entes subnacionales. Este Ensayo analiza el caso del Estado de Maranhão, Brasil, en el contexto de la pandemia, el cual mediante una "operación de guerra", compró en el mercado internacional más de cien respiradores, aun a pesar del Gobierno Federal, en un momento de acérrima competición internacional por materiales y equipamientos médicos. El Ensayo investiga los principales aspectos, contextos, razones, factores, actores y acciones que contextualizan la operación realizada por el Estado de Maranhão como una actividad paradiplomática y de Diplomacia en Salud Global de un ente subnacional en Brasil. Analizamos los conceptos citados a la luz de la literatura sobre el tema y estudiamos la actuación de Maranhão, a partir del cruce de datos de documentos, pronunciamientos y noticias. Concluimos que el caso marañense ilustra la capacidad de entes locales en responder a las emergencias de cuño global, principalmente en contextos de ineficacia o ausencia del ejecutivo federal, legitimando acciones independientes que visen la protección a la vida.

Abstract: As the COVID-19 pandemic has spread worldwide in 2020, populations, authorities, and local and global health governance institutions have been affected differently. Global Health Diplomacy and "paradiplomacy" have become relevant instruments and arenas for the challenges raised by the pandemic, especially for non-State or subnational actors. This Essay analyzes the case of the Brazilian state of Maranhão during the pandemic, which used a "wartime operation" to purchase more than a hundred mechanical ventilators on the international market, over the Federal Government's head, at a moment of fierce international competition for medical supplies and equipment. The Essay examines the principal aspects, contexts, reasons, factors, actors, and actions that contextualize the operation conducted by the state of Maranhão as an activity in paradiplomacy and Global Health Diplomacy by a subnational government in Brazil. We analyzed these concepts in light of the literature on the topic and studied the action by Maranhão based on cross-analysis of data from documents, statements, and news coverage. We conclude that the case of Maranhão illustrates the capacity of subnational bodies to respond to global emergencies, mainly in contexts of inefficacy or absence of the Federal executive, legitimizing independent action aimed at saving lives.

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ABSTRACT We will analyze and comment on the book Health Diplomacy and Global Health: Latin American Perspectives, edited by Paulo Marchiori Buss and Sebastián Tobar and published by Editora Fiocruz. Throughout its 653 pages, the book brings prominent national and foreign authors in the field of Health Diplomacy and Global Health, depicting a decade in which Brazil had great international protagonism in the field of Public Health, especially in South-South cooperation, in an innovative and structuring manner. Furthermore, the chapters present theoretical aspects and basic principles of Global Health as a new field of knowledge, in which the country has been developing and sharing scientific production with a Latin American perspective, focused on the pursuit of equity and health for all peoples of the world.

RESUMO Analisa-se e comenta-se a obra Diplomacia em Saúde e Saúde Global: perspectivas latino-americanas, editada por Paulo Marchiori Buss e Sebastián Tobar, publicado pela Editora Fiocruz. O livro, em 653 páginas, traz contribuições de destacados autores nacionais e estrangeiros no campo da diplomacia em saúde e da saúde global, retratando uma década em que o Brasil teve grande protagonismo internacional no campo da saúde pública, sobretudo na cooperação Sul-Sul, de forma inovadora e estruturante. Ademais, os capítulos apresentam aspectos teóricos e princípios básicos da saúde global como novo campo de conhecimento, no qual o país vem desenvolvendo e compartilhando uma produção científica com uma perspectiva latino-americana, voltada para a busca da equidade e da saúde para todos os povos do mundo.

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BACKGROUND: Global health diplomacy (GHD) has become an important field of investigation due to health concerns increasingly entering the foreign policy domain. Much of the existing academic writing focuses on North-South cooperation in global health, and emphasizes the role of security and economic interests by Northern countries as drivers of GHD. Chile presents a favourable environment for an expanded involvement in future GHD activities. However, there is little knowledge about what has been driving Chile's integration of health into foreign policy, and little effort to appropriate knowledge from international relations theories to better theoretically grasp the emergence of GHD. METHODS: To fill this knowledge gap, we conducted a narrative literature review of the driving forces behind Chile's integration of health into foreign policy. Drawing on a popular analytical framework used in international relations scholarship, we identified driving forces of the integration of health into Chile foreign policy at three levels of analysis. RESULTS: At the international/global level of analysis, the main driving forces were related to national security concerns and compliance with regulations of international organizations. At the regional level, GHD was driven by a commitment to regional solidarity through mutually beneficial cooperation in response to neoliberal reforms; health coordination in emergencies; and protection of indigenous peoples. Finally, at the domestic level, drivers identified include economic interests of various productive sectors and how health regulations might impact those; the high degree of social inequity which impacts on access to healthcare; and management of natural disasters. CONCLUSION: Health actions in the context of international relations in Chile are still mainly motivated by more traditional foreign policy interests rather than by a desire to satisfy health needs per se. This seems to conform with findings of existing GHD scholarship that emphasize the importance of security and economic interests as driving forces of GHD, and how health is often appropriated instrumentally within foreign policy settings to achieve other goals. But the review also reveals that in the context of South-South cooperation (and regional health diplomacy), solidarity and normative considerations can be important driving forces as well. Finally, the review demonstrates that there has been an evolution from chiefly domestically focused health policies (e.g. maternal and child nutrition treatment) towards internationally inspired integrated policies (e.g. maternal and child nutrition promotion aligned with international guidelines).

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BACKGROUND: Acute poliomyelitis (APM/polio) is a viral infection caused by the polio virus that continues to have a fascinating social and economic impact on countries throughout the world. Humans acquire the virus by close personal contact with transmission occurring through the fecal-oral route. The majority of poliovirus infections results in no illness or produces only self-limited symptoms, however in approximately 5% of infected patients flaccid paralysis of the limbs can occur and 1% can die. Although APM is no longer a feared disease mainly due to the development of effective vaccines, its eradication remains elusive. METHODS: The aim of this study is to review the historical impact of APM in Trinidad. A retrospective analysis of all cases occurring from 1939 to 1972 was undertaken. Data for the study were derived from two sources the Annual Statistical Reports of the Ministry of Health 1972-2000 and the epidemiological publications of the League of Nations Health Organization and the World Health Organization. RESULTS: There were four outbreaks of APM in Trinidad 1941, 1942, 1954, and 1972. After the final outbreak in 1972, APM was eradicated not only from Trinidad but also all the countries of the Americas mainly through the effective use of the oral polio vaccine. CONCLUSION: Polio has brought together international agencies, governments, and the people to build an effective public health system around a common vision for health and wellbeing. The polio eradication and endgame strategic plan represents a major milestone in polio eradication developed by global polio eradication initiative. The initiative would still benefit from adopting some of the best practices in governance from other organizations in the global health sector.

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Conceptions of acute public health events typically assume that they are tackled exclusively or principally through technical and medical solutions. Yet health and politics are inexorably linked. To better understand this link, this paper adopts a disaster diplomacy perspective for analysing and assessing the impacts of acute public health events on diplomatic outcomes. Two gaps in understanding disaster-health-politics connections are addressed: (i) how health interventions can impact diplomatic endeavours, especially for (ii) acute public health events. Three diverse case studies are interpreted from a disaster diplomacy perspective: Cuba's medical diplomacy, China and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), and polio vaccination. Disaster diplomacy permits deeper investigation and analysis of connections amongst health, disaster, and diplomatic activities by viewing efforts on acute public health events as being political through disaster risk reduction (beforehand) and disaster response (during and afterwards). Understanding improves how health interventions affect diplomacy and on disaster diplomacy's limitations.

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Resumo O artigo aborda a presença da saúde na diplomacia da saúde e na cooperação internacional do Brasil, desde o surgimento do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS), com ênfase na cooperação Sul-Sul e em linha com as prioridades da cooperação técnica internacional do país desde então, que enfatiza as relações com países da América Latina e Caribe (ALC) e da Comunidade de Países de Língua Portuguesa (CPLP), particularmente com os Países Africanos de Língua Oficial Portuguesa (PALOP) e Timor Leste. Ressalta os papéis do Ministério da Saúde, por meio da Assessoria Internacional em Saúde (AISA) e da Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), além da Agência Brasileira de Cooperação (ABC), do Ministério das Relações Exteriores, e da Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde (OPAS). Aponta o papel do Termo de Cooperação TC-41 como um dos principais instrumentos da viabilização da cooperação. Apresenta os casos das redes estruturantes dos sistemas de saúde, assim como as negociações paradigmáticas da Convenção-Quadro sobre Controle do Tabaco, do Acordo TRIPS e da criação da UNAIDS, nos quais o papel da diplomacia brasileira foi preponderante.

Abstract This paper addresses the role of health in Brazil's health diplomacy and international cooperation since the emergence of the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS), focusing in particular on South-South cooperation, in line with the priorities of the country's international technical cooperation since its creation. It highlights the relationship with the Latin American and Caribbean Countries (LAC) and the Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries (CPLP), more specifically, with the Portuguese Speaking African Countries (PALOP) and East Timor. It emphasizes the roles of the Ministry of Health, through the International Advisory Working Group on Health (AISA) and the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), the Brazilian Cooperation Agency (ABC), the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). The article points out that the TC-41 Co-operation Agreement is one of the main instruments for enabling cooperation. It presents the cases of the structuring networks of health systems, as well as the paradigmatic negotiations of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, the TRIPS Agreement and the establishment of UNITAIDS, in which Brazilian diplomacy had a predominant role.

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Objetivo: Este estudo tem como objetivo analisar a importância do modelo de cooperação sul-sul para a implantação da Rede Latino-americana de Banco de Leite Humano e as ações desempenhadas pelo Brasil neste processo de implantação. Metodologia: Tratou-se de uma pesquisa com a utilização da análise bibliográfica e documental, para a compreensão da cooperação estruturante. Sendo realizada a busca nas bases de dados do SciELO, e LILACS, e no site da Rede Global de Banco de Leite da Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Foram selecionados 10 artigos e cinco documentos oficiais. Resultados: Percebe-se que a trajetória de cooperação entre os países teve sua construção marcada por eventos e acordos, que permitiram a estruturação da Rede Global de Leite Humano, maior articuladora para o sucesso da política pública em amamentação no Brasil, enfrentando da mortalidade infantil, e afirmando o protagonismo feminino que movimenta todas as ações que cooperam para a redução da mortalidade infantil. Conclusão: A estratégia mantém um perfil solidário entre os países pactuados, pois o objetivo de redução da mortalidade é enfrentado como experiência exitosa

Objective: This study aims to analyze the importance of the South-South cooperation model for the implementation of the Latin American Network of Human Milk Bank and the actions carried out by Brazil in this implementation process. Methodology: It is a research with the use of bibliographical and documentary analysis, for the understanding of structuring cooperation. The search was carried out in the databases of Scielo, and LILACS, and in the website of the Global Network of Milk Bank of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation. We selected 10 articles and five official documents. Results: It is noticed that the cooperation path between the countries was built by events and agreements, which allowed the structuring of the Global Network of Human Milk, the main articulator for the success of the public policy on breastfeeding in Brazil, facing infant mortality, and affirming the female protagonism that moves all actions that cooperate to reduce infant mortality. Conclusion: The strategy maintains a solidarity profile between the agreedments countries, because the objective of mortality decrease is confronting as a successful experience

Objetivo: Este estudio tiene como objetivo analizar la importancia del modelo de cooperación sur-sur para la implantación de la Red Latinoamericana de Banco de Leche Humana y las acciones desempeñadas por Brasil en este proceso de implantación. Metodología: Se trata de una investigación con la utilización del análisis bibliográfico y documental, para la comprensión de la cooperación estructurante. Se realizó la búsqueda en las bases de datos de Scielo, y LILACS, y en el sitio de la Red Global de Banco de Leche de la Fundación Oswaldo Cruz. Se seleccionaron 10 artículos y cinco documentos oficiales. Resultados: Se percibe que la trayectoria de cooperación entre los países tuvo su construcción marcada por eventos y acuerdos, que permitieron la estructuración de la Red Global de Leche Humana, mayor articuladora para el éxito de la política pública en lactancia en Brasil, enfrentándose a la mortalidad infantil, y afirmando el protagonismo femenino que mueve todas las acciones que cooperan para la reducción de la mortalidad infantil. Conclusión: La estrategia mantiene un solidario perfil entre los países pactados, porque el objetivo de reducir la mortalidad se enfrentado como una experiencia exitosa.

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Attention to health policies in Southern regional organisations reveals a new 'social turn' in the regional political economy of international cooperation. The aims of this paper are twofold. First, it aims to establish the extent to which the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) has adopted and sustained policy interventions committed to addressing social inequities and asymmetries in relation to health, as indicated by regional policy agendas, policy development processes and resourcing. Second, it seeks to understand how UNASUR is mobilising national and regional actors in support of such policies. Our analysis of documentary sources and interviews leads us to draw the following conclusions. First, we argue that the UNASUR regional framework has a committed social equity/rights focus in relation to access to health care and medicines, with a clear focus on reducing asymmetries between countries. Second, although UNASUR does not enforce national commitments on health and medicines, it nonetheless plays a role in expanding domestic policy horizons and policy capacities. In this respect, we find that UNASUR interventions lead to initiatives and actions aimed at implementing reforms, setting targets and defining goals nationally. Third, in global arena, UNASUR enhances the visibility and 'voices' of the member states.

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BACKGROUND: Cape Verdean doctors have always graduated abroad. The first experience of pre-graduate medical education in Cape Verde begun in October 2015. Counting how many doctors Cape Verde has, knowing who they are, and knowing how they are distributed are very important to help fine-tune the medical training. The aim of this study is to analyze the evolution of the medical workforce in Cape Verde to support medical education implementation. METHODS: Secondary data on doctors, from July 1975 until December 2014, collected from the Ministry of Health, were entered into an SPSS 20 database and studied by a simple descriptive statistical analysis. RESULTS: The database included data on 401 medical doctors. There was a predominance of females (n = 218; 54.4%). The overwhelming majority (n = 378; 94.3%) graduated from 5 of the 17 countries that contributed to the training of Cape Verdean doctors. All the islands of this archipelago country contributed to the 324 (80.8%) doctors born in the country. Of the 272 doctors still active in December 2014, 119 (43.6%) were general practitioners and 153 (56.4%) had specialized in one of the 31 specialties. The national ratio of doctors per 10 000 inhabitants was 5.25, but the reality varied significantly among islands. About one third of the doctors (n = 86; 32%) were at the primary care level, 38 (14%) at the secondary care level, and 144 (52%) in central hospitals. In 2053, all active physicians in 2014 will already be retired. CONCLUSIONS: This is a unique study of the evolution of the medical workforce of a country over 40 years, from the first day of independence. The study illustrates the importance of international collaborations, particularly of Cuba, in sustaining the medical workforce in Cape Verde. It is an example of how this collaboration was used to equip the country with doctors in an increasingly more equitable distribution across all islands. The study further illustrates the progressive feminization of the medical workforce. The study clarifies the effort required from the emerging medical faculty to supply the national health system with the needed number of doctors.

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Minority populations in the world are permanently challenged with unequal living and working conditions in their daily lives that compromise their access to needed clinical and preventive services. When we discuss the health-care conditions for minorities, we must address the social determinants of access that are ultimately determined by the policies and politics of the governments. Renowned experts of quality in healthcare have been critical of the current design and implementation of randomized clinical trials, the gold standard of clinical research because they believe that they often, but not always, presume a linear, mechanistic system when in fact improvement in health care takes place within complex adaptive systems that evolve. The combined action of ignorance and prejudice can impair the efficient recruitment and retaining of "different people" like hispanics and transgender that have long suffered discrimination in their access to health-care services in spite that they are more prone to have chronic conditions. Even though the incidence of AIDS has decreased in the general population during the past two decades, it is continuing in the gay population due to educational issues, discrimination in health-care access and lack of proper public and private funding for the life-saving retroviral medication. The declaration of the "International Conference on Health Promotion" sponsored by PAHO in Colombia in 1992 have emphasized the aim of reducing differences in health status as well as ensuring equal opportunities and resources to enable all people to achieve their full health potential. Through the entreaties of the Global Health Diplomacy, the resiliently hardcore issues of discrimination and marginalization must be addressed by encouraging public policies that guarantee equity and ensure access for the most socially castigated groups.

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Given the international dimensions of the social, economic, and environmental determinants of health and their manifestations, countries are increasingly negotiating with each other and actively participating in global health governance and global governance in general, which is unequivocally linked to health. This implies that health ministries need trained staff. This report is a reflection on how to strengthen this function in health ministries through training in health diplomacy. It analyzes the experience of the Program for Strengthening Cooperation for Health Development as part of Cooperation among Countries for Health Development (CCHD), developed by the Department of External Relations, Partnerships and Resource Mobilization of the Pan American Health Organization and the Center for International Relations in Health of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (CRS/FIOCRUZ). This analysis is based on feedback from participants and from facilitators and coordinators of CCHD, and it attempts to develop concepts stemming from their experiences, with the aim of explaining the current situation and reflect on the concepts and practices of health governance and cooperation between health ministries. Since health diplomacy is a concept still in construction, training experiences in health diplomacy should promote critical analysis and reflect identity, based on the conceptions and practices of stakeholders in the processes of global governance and cooperation between health ministries. This article also identifies the requirements and processes of human resources training in health diplomacy.

Diante da dimensão internacional dos determinantes sociais, econômicos e ambientais da saúde e das suas manifestações, os países cada vez mais negociam entre si e participam ativamente da governança da saúde global e da governança global em geral, que está incontestavelmente relacionada com a saúde. Os ministérios da Saúde precisam ter pessoal capacitado para exercer estas atividades. Este artigo examina como fortalecer esta função dos ministérios da Saúde por meio da capacitação em diplomacia da saúde e analisa a experiência obtida com o Programa de Fortalecimento da Cooperação para o Desenvolvimento da Saúde (CCHD), desenvolvido em conjunto pelo Departamento de Relações Externas, Parcerias e Captação de Recursos da Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde (OPAS) e Centro de Relações Internacionais em Saúde da Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (CRIS/FIOCRUZ). A análise parte da perspectiva dos participantes, facilitadores e coordenadores do CCHD e busca elaborar os conceitos a partir das experiências deles visando explicar a realidade atual e pensar nos conceitos e práticas dos processos de governança em saúde e cooperação dos ministérios da Saúde. Como a diplomacia da saúde é um conceito em evolução, as experiências de capacitação nesta área contribuem para estimular uma reflexão crítica e conferir identidade a partir de conceitos e práticas dos atores envolvidos nos processos de governança global e cooperação dos ministérios da Saúde. Também são abordados os requisitos e os processos de formação de recursos humanos em diplomacia da saúde.

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ABSTRACT This report covers the background and evolution of Vaccination Week in the Americas (VWA), an initiative that started as a coordinated response to a 2002 measles outbreak in Colombia and Venezuela, and evolved into the model for other regions and World Immunization Week (WIW). VWA focuses on the work of national immunization programs, with special efforts to reach the unreached. This paper offers examples of how countries have leveraged VWA to implement a diverse array of vaccination activities, strengthening overall health services by integrating with other preventive health interventions, and bolstering "Pan-Americanism" and health diplomacy. The opportunities offered by this global initiative were clearly demonstrated in April 2016 when the successful global switch from the trivalent oral polio vaccine to the bivalent vaccine was synchronized with WIW. Going forward, VWA and WIW can help close the gaps in access to immunization and other health services, contributing to achieve universal health coverage.(AU)

RESUMEN Este informe incluye los antecedentes y la evolución de la Semana de Vacunación en las Américas, una iniciativa que comenzó como una respuesta coordinada a un brote de sarampión en Colombia y Venezuela en el 2002, y evolucionó hasta convertirse en modelo para otras regiones y para la Semana Mundial de la Inmunización. La Semana de Vacunación en las Américas se centra en el trabajo de los programas nacionales de inmunización, con esfuerzos especiales para llegar a las personas que todavía no estén cubiertas. En el presente trabajo se dan ejemplos de cómo los países han aprovechado la Semana de Vacunación para realizar diversas actividades relacionadas con la vacunación, fortalecer los servicios de salud en general mediante la integración con otras intervenciones preventivas y fomentar el "panamericanismo" y la diplomacia en torno a la salud. Las oportunidades que ofrece esta iniciativa mundial quedaron claramente evidenciadas en abril del 2016 con el éxito obtenido en la sustitución de la vacuna oral trivalente contra la poliomielitis por la vacuna bivalente, sincronizada con la Semana Mundial de la Inmunización. En el futuro, la Semana de Vacunación en las Américas y la Semana Mundial de Inmunización pueden ayudar a subsanar la brecha en el acceso a la inmunización y otros servicios de salud, y contribui(AU)

RESUMO Este artigo narra os antecedentes e a evolução da Semana de Vacinação nas Américas (SVA), uma iniciativa que nasceu da resposta coordenada ao surto de sarampo na Colômbia e na Venezuela em 2002 e evoluiu como um modelo para as outras regiões e para a Semana Mundial da Imunização. A SVA põe ênfase no trabalho dos programas nacionais de vacinação e, principalmente, nos esforços para se alcançar quem ainda está inalcançado. São ilustrados exemplos de como os países têm aproveitado a SVA para implementar várias atividades de vacinação, fortalecendo os serviços de saúde em geral ao integrá-la a outras intervenções preventivas e reforçando o pan-americanismo e a diplomacia da saúde. As oportunidades criadas por esta iniciativa global ficaram bem evidentes em abril de 2016 com a bem-sucedida transição em nível mundial da vacina oral contra poliomielite trivalente à bivalente, em sincronia com a Semana Mundial da Imunização. Prosseguindo adiante, a SVA e a Semana Mundial da Imunização podem contribuir para sanar as lacunas no acesso à imunização e a outros serviços de saúde e alcançar a cobertura universal de saúde.(AU)

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O presente artigo traça a evolução histórica da cooperação técnica internacional brasileira e sua relação com a saúde pública, marcando os momentos de inflexão conceitual e a perspectiva atual do Brasil sobre o tema. Analisar essa evolução histórico conceitual e a inserção brasileira na política global da saúde é o objetivo deste artigo, que tem como método a análise documental, apoiada em revisão da literatura, e metodologia qualitativa. O marco teórico apoia-se principalmente em autores da política externa brasileira, da saúde global e da diplomacia da saúde, além de relatórios de instituições nacionais e multilaterais envolvidas coma cooperação técnica internacional em saúde.

This article draws the historical evolution of Brazilian international technical cooperation and its relationship to public health, marking the moments of conceptual inflection and Brazil’s current perspective on the subject. The purpose of this article is to analyze this historical and conceptual evolution and the Brazilian participation in the global health policy, which method is document analysis, based on literature review and qualitative methodology. The theoretical framework relies primarily on authors of Brazilian foreign policy,global health and health diplomacy, as well as reports of national and multilateral institutions involved ininternational technical cooperation in health.

Este artículo describe la evolución histórica de la cooperación técnica internacional de Brasil y su relacióncon la salud pública, marcando los momentos de inflexión conceptual y la perspectiva actual de Brasil sobreel tema. Analizar esta evolución histórica y conceptual y la participación de Brasil en la política sanitaria mundial es el propósito de este artículo, que tiene como método para el análisis documental, basado en revisión de la literatura y en la metodología cualitativa. El marco teórico se basa principalmente en autores dela política exterior brasileña, de la salud mundial y de la diplomacia de la salud, así como en los informes delas instituciones nacionales y multilaterales que participan de la cooperación técnica internacional en salud.

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Introdução: ao que pese as diferenças nucleares entre os blocos União Europeia (UE) - supranacional e União das Nações Sul-americanas (UNASUL) - intergovernamental, em ambos as competências regionais em matéria sanitária não se sobrepõe às competências dos Estados-membros. No caso da União Europeia os art. 4, §2, k; art. 6, a; art. 168 do Tratado sobre o Funcionamento da UE confere apenas poderes para agir em complemento das políticas nacionais; enquanto na União de Nações Sul-americanas, nos artigos 2o e 3o, f de seu Tratado Constitutivo prevê como objetivo construir, de maneira participativa e consensuada, um espaço de integração, para que de forma consequente os Estados independentes possam garantir o acesso universal aos serviços de saúde às suas populações. Dessa forma, o objetivo é verificar as competências, a constituição histórico-regional, objetivos e potencialidades dessas instituições internacionais, criadas no âmbito desses blocos regionais, em influenciar as políticas regionais e nacionais de saúde. Metodologia: tendo em vista a ampla gama de instituições internacionais que atuam de forma multisetorial na saúde, o estudo apresenta aqueles órgãos cujas competências são estabelecidas nos tratados constitutivos e decisões presidenciais e resoluções desses blocos. Para isso foi realizada uma pesquisa documental e bibliográfica no âmbito das Instituições da União Europeia e da Unasul. Resultados e Conclusão: um importante ponto de questionamento diz respeito à existência ou não de um diálogo entre essas instituições e os cidadãos dos blocos a que pertencem, uma vez que se parte do pressuposto que a democracia deve ser uma regra implícita no 'jogo' internacional.

Introduction: despite nuclear differences between the European Union (EU) - supranational and the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) - intergovernamental blocks, in both regional health skills do not override the competences of the Member States. In the case of the European Union art. 4, § 2, k; art. 6, a; art. 168 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU, it gives only empowered to act as a complement to national policies; while in the Union of South American Nations, in articles 2nd and 3rd, f of its Constitutive Treaty, it stipulates the objective of building in a participatory and consensual manner an area of integration, so that consistently independent States can ensure universal access to health services to their populations. In this way, the aim is to check the powers, the regional historical Constitution, goals and potential of these international institutions, created within the framework of those regional blocs, in influencing the regional and national health policies. Methodology: in view of the wide range of international institutions that act in a multisectoral form in health, the study presents those bodies whose competences are laid down in the founding treaties and presidential decisions and resolutions of these blocks. Results and Discussion: thus it was done a bibliographical and documentary research within the EU and Unasur institutions. An important point of questioning relates to whether or not there is a dialogue between these institutions and the citizens of the blocks to which they belong, since it is assumed that democracy must be an implicit rule in the international "game".

Introducción: a pesar de las diferencias nucleares entre los bloques de la Unión Europea (UE) - supranacional y la Unión de las Naciones Sud-americanas (UNASUL) - intergubernamental, en ambos las competencias regionales en materia sanitaria no se sobrepone las competencias de los Estados-miembros. En el caso de la Unión Europea los art. 4, §2, k; art. 6, a; art. 168 del Tratado sobre el Funcionamiento de la UE confiere apenas poderes para actuar en complemento de las políticas nacionales; mientras en la Unión de Naciones Sud-americanas, en los artículos 2o y 3o, f de su Tratado Constitutivo predice como objetivo construir, de manera participativa y consensual, un espacio de integración, para que de forma consecuente los Estados independientes puedan garantizar el acceso universal a los servicios de salud a su población. Metodología: de esa forma, el objetivo es verificar las competencias, la constitución histórico-regional, objetivos y potencialidades de esas instituciones internacionales, creadas en el ámbito de esos bloques regionales, en influenciar las políticas regionales y nacionales de salud. Dada la amplia gama de instituciones internacionales que actúan de forma multisectorial en la salud, el estudio presenta aquellos organismos cuyas responsabilidades son establecidas en los tratados constitutivos y decisiones presidenciales y resoluciones de esos bloques. Para eso fue realizada una investigación documental y bibliográfica en el ámbito de las Instituciones de la Unión Europea y de la Unasul. Resultados y Discusión: un importante punto de cuestionamiento dice respecto a la existencia o no de un dialogo entre esas instituciones y los ciudadanos de los bloques a los que pertenecen, una vez que se asume que la democracia debe ser una regla implícita en el "juego" internacional.

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Considerando a existência de uma nova arquitetura em Saúde Global – que agrega uma visão holística dos determinantes em saúde, com um maior palco de ação para atores do Sul influenciarem a Governança em Saúde Global – este trabalho se propõe a apresentar a inserção do Brasil nessa arquitetura. Ressaltando o caráter dual dessa dinâmica, que se desenrola tanto em uma atuação como doador para os países africanos de língua portuguesa em áreas nas quais o Brasil possui expertise, como receptor de cooperação cubana, via arranjo de triangulação com a Organização Pan-Americana de Saúde, no fortalecimento das ações em atenção primária em saúde.

Considering the existence of a new architecture in Global Health - which joins up a holistic vision on the determining factors on health with a greater policy space for the actors from the South to influence the Global Health Governance - this work aims to present the Brazilian insertion in this architecture . It Highlighting the dual character of its dynamics, which takes place both in an action as donor for Portuguese-speaking African countries in areas where Brazil has expertise, and as a recipient of cooperation from Cuban, through an triangulation with the Pan American Health Organization , In strengthening the actions on primary health care.

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