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Commodity futures constitute an attractive asset class for portfolio managers. Propelled by their low correlation with other assets, commodities begin gaining popularity among investors, as they allow to capture diversification benefits. This comprehensive study examines the time and frequency spillovers between the Economic Policy Uncertainty [1] and a broad set of commodities encompassing ferrous, non-ferrous, and precious metals, food, and energy commodities over a period from December 1997 to April 2022, which includes various political, economic and health crises. The novelty of this research lies in its extensive temporal and categorical coverage, providing an understanding of how different types of commodities respond to various crises. Furthermore, our study breaks new ground by employing wavelet analysis to gain detailed insights in both time and frequency domains in the financial time series of interest, providing a deeper understanding of the co-movements and lead-lag relationships. Specifically, we introduce the Cross Wavelet Transform (XWT) and Wavelet Coherence (WTC) analysis. Our findings demonstrate that not all crises uniformly impact commodities. Notably, during the global financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic, co-movements between commodities became significantly stronger. These results highlight the heterogeneity within the commodity asset class, where individual commodities exhibit diverse underlying dynamics. Importantly, the proposed methodology facilitates the extraction of robust results even when dealing with nonlinearities and nonstationary time series data. Consequently, our work offers valuable insights for policymakers (including regulatory bodies), investors, and fund managers.
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BACKGROUND: A new paradigm has been discussed regarding the impact of economic cycles on the mortality pattern from specific causes. These causes are called deaths of despair, and they selectively impact specific demographic groups. Also, low- and middle-income countries are most affected due to their economic and social instability. In this sense, the objective of study was to compare the magnitude of disparity in deaths from despair according to sex, age, and race in Brazil. METHODS: We performed Poisson regression modeling to estimate the magnitude of the association between sex, age group, race, and deaths from despair. Also, we estimated the relationship of time as a proxy of economic crisis phase and deaths of despair. RESULTS: We found an association between mortality from despair and male sex (PR = 6.15, 95%CI 6.09-6.22); emphasis on the age groups from 40 to 49 years old (PR = 2.45, 95% CI 2.41-2.48) and 50 to 59 years old (PR = 2.39, 95% CI 2.36-2.43); and brown (PR = 1.21, 95% CI 1.20-1.22) and black race (PR = 1.36, 95% CI 1.34-1.37). CONCLUSIONS: The present study preliminarily presents the effect of the economic crisis and mortality in the population, with demographic differences. Association with race was opposite to that verified in the original study in the USA, which suggests that this variable should be analyzed in the light of structural context.
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The tourism industry is vulnerable to a range of economic and political factors, which can have both short-term and long-term impacts on tourist arrivals. The study aims to investigate the temporal dynamics of these factors and their impact on tourist arrivals. The method employed is a panel data regression analysis, using data from BRICS economies over a period of 1980-2020. The dependent variable is the number of tourist arrivals, while the independent variables are geopolitical risk, currency fluctuation, and economic policy. Control variables such as GDP, exchange rate, and distance to major tourist destinations are also included. The results show that geopolitical risk and currency fluctuation have a significant negative impact on tourist arrivals, while economic policy has a positive impact. The study also finds that the impact of geopolitical risk is stronger in the short term, while the impact of economic policy is stronger in the long term. Additionally, the study shows that the effects of these factors on tourist arrivals vary across BRICS countries. The policy implications of this study suggest that BRICS economies need to develop proactive economic policies that promote stability and encourage investment in the tourism industry.
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Investimentos em Saúde , Viagem , Turismo , Desenvolvimento Econômico , Dióxido de CarbonoRESUMO
This article analyzes the pricing of innovations in the Brazilian stock market during periods of economic uncertainty. Cross-sectional data were analyzed using the generalized method of moments technique, and our findings indicate that during such periods, innovations negatively impact excess stock returns. Furthermore, our findings suggest that innovations during economic uncertainty improve the pricing of financial assets, making them a significant risk factor. These results are corroborated by those for the Corporate Sustainability Index and the Small Caps Index in the robustness analysis.
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Resumen El proceso de descentralización fiscal en Colombia, determinada por la descentralización hacia el mercado, tiene una relación intrínseca con las políticas de apertura económica que pueden ser rastreadas desde finales de la década de los años 60 del siglo XX, en la que se evidencia como el aumento del gasto derivado de las políticas de descentralización fiscal conllevaron a la adopción de políticas enfocadas en la liberalización y desregulación de la economía. Todo esto en sincronía con la puesta en marcha de la Modernización del Estado en Colombia. Este proceso genera un aumento de la opresión fiscal de corte indirecto y regresivo en el país y una pérdida de derechos del pueblo colombiano a partir de los postulados de eficiencia y eficacia impartida por el mercado, los cuales han evidenciado todo lo contrario al no comprender la descentralización atada a las relaciones sociales, económicas, culturales y políticas en el país que han generado una captura del Estado con procesos de corrupción, detrimentos patrimoniales y baja responsabilidad en la prestación de los servicios públicos y los derechos sociales.
Abstract The process of fiscal decentralization in Colombia, which is determined by decentralization to the market, has an intrinsic relationship with the policies of economic openness, which can be traced back to the late 1960s, which shows how increased spending from fiscal decentralization policies led to the adoption of policies focused on the liberalization and deregulation of the economy. All this in synchrony with the implementation of the Modernization of the State in Colombia. This process generates an increase in indirect and regressive fiscal oppression in the country and a loss of rights of the Colombian people from the postulates of efficiency and effectiveness imparted by the market, which have proven quite the opposite by not understanding the decentralization tied to social, economic, cultural and political relations in the country, which have generated a capture of the State with processes of corruption, property detriments, and low responsibility for the provision of public services and social rights.
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Abstract Given the lack of governmental guidelines, this paper identifies and analyzes the statistical determinants associated with receiving the onetime monetary transfer in El Salvador ($300 dollars) as an economic measure to face the COVID-19 pandemic. A logistic regression was implemented (whether received the transfer or not) based on a probabilistic sample (n=1222) of surveyed people throughout the country. Independent variables were selected drawing upon key characteristics employed internationally in monetary transfers: age, gender, rural area, employment, family income, and education. The text identifies a statistically significant and negative relation between receiving the monetary transfer and two variables: family income and educational level. The need to increase coverage of the program is addressed as well as the importance of considering age, gender, rural areas, and employment as criteria for selecting the beneficiaries in such economic measures.
Resumo Dada a ausência de diretrizes governamentais, o texto apresenta uma análise exploratória e identifica quais são os fatores estatísticos determinantes que explicam a transferência única de renda ($300 dólares) como medida econômica para enfrentar a pandemia gerada pela COVID-19 em El Salvador. Para tal fim, utiliza-se uma análise estatística de regressão logística (receber ou não a ajuda) com base em uma amostra probabilística de respondentes em todo o país (n=1222). Como variáveis independentes emprega-se caraterísticas importantes utilizadas em programas de transferência de renda em todo o mundo: Idade, gênero, zona de procedência, emprego e renda familiar e nível educacional. O presente texto identifica que existe uma relação inversa e estatisticamente significativa entre essa ajuda pública com a renda familiar e o nível educacional. Finalmente, discute-se a necessidade de ampliação do programa econômico e a importância de considerar características como idade, gênero, zona de procedência e emprego nesse tipo de políticas econômicas.
Resumen Ante la falta de lineamientos gubernamentales, el presente texto muestra un análisis exploratorio e identifica cuáles han sido los determinantes estadísticos asociados a la recepción de la transferencia monetaria única ($300 dólares) como medida económica para enfrentar la pandemia de COVID-19 en El Salvador. Para tal efecto, se utiliza un análisis estadístico de regresión logística (recibir la ayuda o no) con base en una muestra probabilística de encuestados en todo el país (n=1222). Como variables independientes se emplean características cruciales utilizadas en programas de transferencias monetarias a nivel internacional: Edad, género, lugar de origen, empleo, ingresos familiares y nivel educacional. El presente texto identifica que existe una relación inversa y estadísticamente significativa entre la asignación de esa ayuda pública, los ingresos familiares y el nivel educacional. Finalmente, se discute la necesidad de ampliación del programa y la importancia de considerar aspectos como edad, género, lugar de origen y empleo en ese tipo de políticas económicas.
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Humanos , Masculino , Feminino , Política Pública , Orçamentos , Infecções por Coronavirus , EconomiaRESUMO
Este texto apresenta um panorama internacional das medidas econômicas adotadas para reduzir os graves efeitos econômicos da pandemia de Sars-COV-2 em três países: Estados Unidos, Reino Unido e Espanha. A análise toma como base primordialmente documentos governamentais que normatizaram as medidas de política econômica. São analisados os diversos canais por meio dos quais a crise sanitária afeta a economia. Por um lado, estão os fatores de oferta: oferta de trabalho, produtividade do trabalho e funcionamento das cadeias produtivas. Por outro lado, encontram-se os fatores de demanda: consumo das famílias, investimento privado e comércio exterior. O terceiro canal diz respeito aos fatores financeiros que incidem sobre as variáveis de demanda e, principalmente, sobre o grau de liquidez das empresas financeiras e não financeiras. As medidas adotadas nos três países apresentam como características comuns a mobilização de grande volume de recursos fiscais e financeiros, a adoção de uma grande diversidade de instrumentos de política econômica e o uso de arranjos institucionais sofisticados em termos de regras de focalização e de mecanismos de operacionalização das medidas adotadas.
This text presents an international overview of the economic measures adopted to reduce the serious economic effects of the Sars-COV-2 pandemic in three countries: the USA, the United Kingdom and Spain. The analysis is based primarily on government documents that regulated economic policy measures. The various channels through which the health crisis affects the economy are analyzed. On one hand, there are the supply factors: labor supply, labor productivity and the functioning of production chains. On the other hand, there are demand factors: household consumption, private investment and foreign trade. The third channel concerns the financial factors on demand variables and, mainly, on the degree of liquidity of financial and non-financial companies. The measures adopted in the three countries have as common characteristics the mobilization of large volumes of fiscal and financial resources, the adoption of a wide range of economic policy instruments and the use of sophisticated institutional arrangements in terms of targeting rules and mechanisms for operationalizing the measures adopted.
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Política Pública , Coronavirus , Pandemias , Espanha/epidemiologia , Estados Unidos/epidemiologia , Reino Unido/epidemiologiaRESUMO
RESUMO: O artigo tem como proposta abordar o posicionamento de uma determinada compreensão da Psicanálise face à política econômica capitalista, na forma como esta se apresenta na sociedade. Desse modo, o objetivo do artigo foi expor as considerações da Psicanálise a respeito da política e os seus agenciamentos no âmbito da produção de subjetividade, utilizando a estética como brecha para ampliação das suas possibilidades singularizantes na direção da cura. Realizou-se uma pesquisa procurando tecer considerações vinculadas ao que alguns psicanalistas contemporâneos têm comentado e refletido sobre o assunto. Por fim, acompanhando Freud e Lacan, empreendemos uma interlocução com Marx e a estética para melhor vislumbrarmos o alcance dessas questões. Estamos de acordo com Lacan, no posicionamento de que apenas será um progresso subverter o discurso do capitalista se as oportunidades de condição à palavra e ao desejo não forem somente para alguns.
ABSTRACT: The article proposes to approach the positioning of a certain understanding of Psychoanalysis in relation to capitalist economic policy, in the way it presents itself in society. In this way, the objective of the article was to expose the considerations of Psychoanalysis regarding politics and its agencies in the field of the production of subjectivity, using aesthetics as a loophole to expand its singularizing possibilities towards healing. A research was carried out seeking to weave some considerations linked to what some contemporary psychoanalysts have commented on and reflected on the subject. Finally, accompanying Freud and Lacan, we undertook an interlocution with Marx and aesthetics to better glimpse the scope of these issues. We agree with Lacan that there will only be progress to subvert the discourse of the capitalist if the opportunities to condition the word and the desire are not only for some.
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Política , Psicanálise , CapitalismoRESUMO
Abstract Fiscal austerity policies have been used as responses to economic crises and fiscal deficits in both developed and developing countries. While they vary in regard to their content, intensity and implementation, such models recommend reducing public expenses and social investments, retracting the public service and substituting the private sector in lieu of the State to provide certain services tied to social policies. The present article discusses the main effects of the recent economic crisis on public health based on an updated review with consideration for three dimensions: health risks, epidemiological profiles of different populations, and health policies. In Brazil, the combination of economic crisis and fiscal austerity policies is capable of producing a direr situation than those experienced in developed countries. The country is characterized by historically high levels of social inequality, an under-financed health sector, highly prevalent chronic degenerative diseases and persisting preventable infectious diseases. It is imperative to develop alternatives to mitigate the effects of the economic crisis taking into consideration not only the sustainability of public finance but also public well-being.
Resumo Políticas de austeridade fiscal têm sido utilizadas como respostas à crise econômica e deficit fiscal tanto em países desenvolvidos como em desenvolvimento. Embora variem quanto ao conteúdo, intensidade e cronograma de implementação, tais modelos preconizam a redução do gasto público, promovendo também a diminuição do investimento social, a retração da máquina pública e a substituição do Estado pelo setor privado na provisão de determinados serviços vinculados a políticas sociais. Este artigo debate os principais efeitos da crise econômica recente sobre a saúde da população, tendo sido baseado em uma revisão atualizada, considerando-se três dimensões: riscos à saúde, perfil epidemiológico das populações e políticas de saúde. A crise econômica no Brasil, combinada com a política de austeridade fiscal, pode produzir um contexto mais grave do que o vivenciado pelos países desenvolvidos. O país apresenta altos níveis históricos de desigualdade social, subfinanciamento do setor saúde, alta prevalência de doenças crônico-degenerativas e persistência de doenças infeciosas evitáveis. É imperativo que se construam alternativas para se mitigar os efeitos da crise econômica, levando-se em conta não apenas a sustentabilidade das finanças públicas, mas também o bem-estar da população.
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Humanos , Alocação de Recursos para a Atenção à Saúde/economia , Saúde Pública/economia , Alocação de Recursos/economia , Países em Desenvolvimento/economia , Recessão Econômica , Política de Saúde/economia , Apoio à Pesquisa como Assunto/economia , Fatores Socioeconômicos , Brasil/epidemiologia , Áreas de Pobreza , Países Desenvolvidos/economia , Doença Crônica/epidemiologia , Doenças Transmissíveis/epidemiologia , Fatores de Risco , Mortalidade , Gastos em Saúde , Medição de Risco , Economia , Doenças não Transmissíveis/epidemiologia , Infecções/epidemiologia , Transtornos Mentais/etiologia , Transtornos Mentais/psicologiaRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Previous studies found that while internationally financed economic development projects reduced poverty when measured in terms of per capita GDP, they also caused indigenous people to become disassociated, impoverished and alienated minorities whose health status has declined to unacceptable lows when measured in terms of mercury poisoning and the burgeoning rate of suicide. In this study, we developed a needs assessment and a policy-oriented causal diagram to determine whether the impaired health of the people in this region was at least partially due to the role the country has played within the global economy. Specifically, could the health and well-being of indigenous people in Suriname be understood in terms of the foreign investment programs and economic development policies traceable to the Inter-American Development Bank's Suriname Land Management Project. METHODS: Interviews took place from 2004 through 2015 involving stakeholders with an interest in public health and economic development. A policy-oriented causal diagram was created to model a complex community health system and weave together a wide range of ideas and views captured during the interview process. RESULTS: Converting land and resources held by indigenous people into private ownership has created an active market for land, increased investment and productivity, and reduced poverty when measured in terms of per capita GDP. However, it has also caused indigenous people to become disassociated, impoverished and alienated minorities whose health status has declined to unacceptable lows. While the effects of economic development programs on the health of vulnerable indigenous communities are clear, the governance response is not. The governance response appeared to be determined less by the urgency of the public health issue or by the compelling logic of an appropriate response, and more by competing economic interests and the exercise of power. CONCLUSION: The health and well-being of the indigenous Wayana in Suriname's interior region is at least partially due to the role the country has played within the global economy. Specifically, the health and well-being of indigenous people in Suriname can be understood to be a result of foreign development bank-funded projects that drive the government of Suriname to trade land and natural resources on the global market to manage their country's balance of payments.
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Desenvolvimento Econômico/tendências , Serviços de Saúde do Indígena/estatística & dados numéricos , Saúde Pública/tendências , Fatores Socioeconômicos , Serviços de Saúde Comunitária/métodos , Serviços de Saúde Comunitária/tendências , Desenvolvimento Econômico/história , História do Século XXI , Humanos , Recursos Naturais/provisão & distribuição , Política Pública/história , Política Pública/tendências , Pesquisa Qualitativa , Suriname/etnologia , Populações Vulneráveis/etnologiaRESUMO
O presente artigo trata da natureza do dinheiro como expressão da busca por liberdade pessoal em meio à interdependência econômica real entre os agentes econômicos, imposta pela divisão social do trabalho. Trata da busca de poder por meio de sua acumulação no capitalismo e das diferentes corporificações a que, dentro dessa vertente, o dinheiro foi se conformando ao longo da história. Com especial ênfase no crédito bancário e no sistema de bancos que o emitem, amparados na construção de uma mecânica de compensação de pagamentos que os enlaçou num mesmo sistema para sustentar a sobrevida dessa última forma de dinheiro, o próprio crédito. Forma de dinheiro com a qual convivemos nos dias atuais, sem nos darmos conta disso. O artigo procura mostrar também como esse sistema bancário se entrelaçou ao Estado, em proveito próprio, insuflando à sociedade, por meio da mídia, ideias que a mantém alheia a essa percepção.
This article considers the nature of money as an expression of man's quest for personal freedom in a context characterized by the real economic interdependence among economic agents, imposed by the social division of labor. It also considers the quest for power through the accumulation of money in capitalism, and the various embodiments of money through history. Special emphasis is given to bank credit and the banking system that issues it, supported by the construction of a mechanism of payment compensation. This mechanism has woven the banks into a system built to sustain the survival of this last form of money, i.e., the credit itself, with which we coexist today, without realizing it. The article also seeks to show how the banking system has become closely interconnected with the State, and how it profits from this link, spreading into society, via the media, ideas that prevent society from perceiving its true nature.
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Política , Capitalismo , Conta Bancária/economiaRESUMO
O presente artigo trata da natureza do dinheiro como expressão da busca por liberdade pessoal em meio à interdependência econômica real entre os agentes econômicos, imposta pela divisão social do trabalho. Trata da busca de poder por meio de sua acumulação no capitalismo e das diferentes corporificações a que, dentro dessa vertente, o dinheiro foi se conformando ao longo da história. Com especial ênfase no crédito bancário e no sistema de bancos que o emitem, amparados na construção de uma mecânica de compensação de pagamentos que os enlaçou num mesmo sistema para sustentar a sobrevida dessa última forma de dinheiro, o próprio crédito. Forma de dinheiro com a qual convivemos nos dias atuais, sem nos darmos conta disso. O artigo procura mostrar também como esse sistema bancário se entrelaçou ao Estado, em proveito próprio, insuflando à sociedade, por meio da mídia, ideias que a mantém alheia a essa percepção.(AU)
This article considers the nature of money as an expression of man's quest for personal freedom in a context characterized by the real economic interdependence among economic agents, imposed by the social division of labor. It also considers the quest for power through the accumulation of money in capitalism, and the various embodiments of money through history. Special emphasis is given to bank credit and the banking system that issues it, supported by the construction of a mechanism of payment compensation. This mechanism has woven the banks into a system built to sustain the survival of this last form of money, i.e., the credit itself, with which we coexist today, without realizing it. The article also seeks to show how the banking system has become closely interconnected with the State, and how it profits from this link, spreading into society, via the media, ideas that prevent society from perceiving its true nature.(AU)
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Humanos , CapitalismoRESUMO
The status of undernourishment in children under the age of five in Mexico is open to debate. Linked to poverty, underweight and stunting, the rates of undernourishment are reported to be diminishing, although poverty remains an incessant problem. This study was done to determine whether there is an association between public expenditure and underweight and stunting distribution in Mexico based on data from the 2006 health and population census and from macroeconomic, social, and demographic variables. We used principal component analysis to reduce the number of variables and analyze their behavior. Multiple regressions showed that underweight and stunting are significantly associated with the marginalization index, support from the Sistema Nacional para el Desarrollo Integral de la Familia (DIF) supplies and breakfast program, the gross domestic product per capita, and expenditure from the Opportunities program. Further, public expenditure aimed to combat undernourishment is inadequately oriented to address the needs of the poor.
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Transtornos da Nutrição Infantil/economia , Assistência Alimentar/economia , Transtornos do Crescimento/economia , Magreza/economia , Transtornos da Nutrição Infantil/epidemiologia , Pré-Escolar , Escolaridade , Financiamento Governamental , Assistência Alimentar/normas , Transtornos do Crescimento/epidemiologia , Humanos , Lactente , México/epidemiologia , Estado Nutricional , Pobreza , Análise de Regressão , Magreza/epidemiologiaRESUMO
Este artigo discute a política antiinflacionária dos anos 1990 ("Plano Real") em sua moldura constitucional, na tradição do programa de pesquisa da public choice, revelando aspectos que as análises econômicas convencionais não contemplam: deterioração do sistema de separação de poderes; intensificação do poder discricionário dos burocratas federais; custos de transação associados ao plano, em termos de redução de transparência do processo decisório de política e perda de privacidade, na perspectiva do eleitor-contribuinte.
This article discusses the Brazilian antiinflation policy in the 90s (Real Plan) in its constitutional reference, in the tradition of the public choice research program, revealing aspects that the traditional economic analysis do not consider: the flaws of the separation of powers; he substantial discretionary power of the federal bureaucrats; the transaction costs associated with the plan in terms of reduction of policy decision transparency and privacy from the perspective of the voter-taxpayer.
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This article discusses the dynamics of nongovernmental domestic actors in the foreign economic policy decision-making process. The article addresses four questions: (1) Do nongovernmental actors influence foreign economic policy decisions? (2) What determines their preferences for given policies? (3) What institutional characteristics in the decision-making process offer greater or lesser permeability to demands by domestic actors? (4) Which institutional variables affect the interaction between societal and governmental interests? The author discusses the answers to these questions provided by the literature. The argument is that the existing theoretical perspectives offer only partial explanations to the dynamics at hand and need to be better integrated in order to adequately understand them.
Dans cet article, on discute la dynamique de la participation d'acteurs domestiques non-gouvernementaux dans le processus décisionnel de la politique économique extérieure. On examine quatre questions: 1) les acteurs nationaux non-gouvernementaux influent-ils sur les décisions de politique économique extérieure?; 2) qu'est-ce qui fait que ces acteurs préfèrent certaines politiques?; 3) quelles caractéristiques institutionnelles du processus décisionnel offrent une plus grande perméabilité aux demandes des acteurs nationaux?; 4) quelles variables institutionnelles nuisent à l'intéraction d'acteurs de la société et du gouvernement? On discute les réponses que la littérature offre à ces questions. On avance que les perspectives théoriques existantes offrent des explications partielles pour l'objet à l'étude et doivent être intégrées pour qu'il puisse être compris de façon adéquate.
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PIP: Public participation, particularly among women, and access to environmental information through education and training is vital to the success of environmental policies. The need to promote public participation, environmental education, public awareness and cooperation with nongovernmental organizations has been emphasized at numerous high-level meetings, such as the Bergen, Dublin, Dobris, and Sofia Ministerial Conferences known as the "Environment for Europe" process. Moreover, the participation of women in the implementation of the Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) is expected to strengthen the sustainable development process. The new ECE Convention on access to environmental information and public participation in environmental decision making will also further strengthen the role of women in this aspect.^ieng
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Economia , Meio Ambiente , Desenvolvimento de Programas , Avaliação de Programas e Projetos de Saúde , Comportamento , Países Desenvolvidos , Europa (Continente) , Organização e Administração , Política Pública , Comportamento SocialRESUMO
PIP: The author posits that female labor force integration in Jamaica accomplishes little in alleviating poverty and making maximum use of human resources. Women are forced into employment in a labor market that limits their productivity. Women have greater needs to increase their economic activity due to price inflation and cuts in government spending. During the 1980s and early 1990s the country experienced stabilization and structural adjustment resulting in raised interest rates, reduced public sector employment, and deflated public expenditures. Urban population is particularly sensitive to monetary shifts due to dependency on social welfare benefits and lack of assets. Current strategies favor low wage creation in a supply-side export-oriented economy. These strategies were a by-product of import-substitution industrialization policies during the post-war period and greater control by multilateral financial institutions in Washington, D.C. The World Bank and US President Reagan's Caribbean Basin Initiative stressed export-oriented development. During the 1980s, Jamaican government failed to control fiscal policy, built up a huge external debt, and limited the ability of private businessmen to obtain money for investment in export-based production. Over the decade, uncompetitive production declined and light manufacturing increased. Although under 10% of new investment was in textile and apparel manufacturing, almost 50% of job creation occurred in this sector and 80% of all apparel workers were low-paid women. Devaluation occurred both in the exchange rate and in workers' job security, fringe benefits, union representation, and returns on skills. During 1977-89 women increased employment in the informal sector, which could not remain competitive under devaluation. Women's stratification in the labor market, high dependency burdens, and declining urban infrastructure create conditions of vulnerability for women in Jamaica.^ieng
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Economia , Emprego , Pobreza , População Urbana , América , Região do Caribe , Demografia , Países em Desenvolvimento , Mão de Obra em Saúde , Jamaica , América do Norte , População , Características da População , Política Pública , Pesquisa , Classe Social , Fatores SocioeconômicosRESUMO
PIP: Whereas international conventions and national laws provide equal opportunities for women in employment, the reality of women's lives keeps a disproportionate number of women unemployed, underemployed, and living in poverty. The UN itself, which officially is working toward equity among its employees, has a staff composed of just 32.6% women, and women comprise only 10.5% of the top end of the hierarchy. In areas where women's labor force participation has increased dramatically, women typically earn 30-40% less than men doing the same job or else their employment is limited to "traditional female" service positions. The fact that women and girls have received an inadequate education makes it extremely difficult to break the barriers of discrimination in developing countries. The empowerment of women will break the education barrier, and, when that falls, many other barriers will follow suit. Efforts are already underway to break structural barriers caused by economic and social policies. For example, a more flexible pattern of work has been proposed which will include the voluntary assumption of flexible hours, job-sharing, and part-time work. The concept of work is also being broadened to include the important human services that women traditionally provide on a volunteer basis. This will lead to a valuation of women's contribution to society which can be added to calculations of gross domestic product. Women also need protection as they attempt to eke out a living in the informal sector which has been the traditional avenue for women to earn money. This sector is not protected by law and is subject to extortion by officials and by male competitors. A variety of measures is under consideration to increase the protection of informal sector workers. Women also need protection in the conventional work place, especially as they enter fields traditionally reserved for men. These questions are important even in the context of global unemployment because these issues must be addressed or their resolution to women's disadvantage will gain the mantle of tradition.^ieng
Assuntos
Economia , Escolaridade , Emprego , Estudos de Avaliação como Assunto , Relações Interpessoais , Preconceito , Salários e Benefícios , Nações Unidas , Direitos da Mulher , Comportamento , Agências Internacionais , Organizações , Política Pública , Comportamento Social , Classe Social , Problemas Sociais , Fatores SocioeconômicosRESUMO
PIP: The decade of the 1980s was catastrophic for the countries of Latin America because of profound transformations in the world economy, which started in the 1970s, the wilting of the state development programs that were imposed after World War II, and the collapse of socialism with the incipient transition to market economies. The crisis started because of the erosion of the world economic system as constituted under the Bretton Woods agreement; the drastic drop in the economic growth of market economies; the increased costs of living and the deterioration of the environment; the decrease in industrial capacity; and the emergence of transnationalization of production. In Latin America, the economic models that had been in place without solving underdevelopment became even more obsolete (import substitution, internal trade, and the role of the state). The crisis of socialism and the rapprochement of eastern European countries to western Europe also affected Latin America (e.g., Germany cancelled 30 mine exploration projects in Bolivia due to investments in East Germany). The structural readjustment policies of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank resulted in currency devaluations, redistribution of government funds, elimination of various subsidies, reduction of public debt and social expenditures, reduction of public employment, and payment of external debt. The result was more inflation (in Bolivia, Brazil, Peru, and Argentina, inflation rates were 683.7%, 157.1%, 100.1%, and 326.2%, respectively, between 1980 and 1986), unemployment, and poverty in the lost decade of the 1980s. After 1982, state expenditures on roads, education, hospitals, and nutrition declined by 40% in Mexico. Even though most countries returned to democracy in the region, this was at the cost of the increased role of the military and the transnationals. The grand parties collapsed and in Venezuela, Mexico, and Colombia authoritarian tendencies survived into the 1970s degrading democracy. The states' socioeconomic regulatory role has to be redefined.^ieng