RESUMO
Ecuador is the third largest cacao exporter in the world. Up to 10 % of Ecuador's cacao production is grown in the Amazon region, mostly under conventional (CA) and organic (OA) agroforestry systems. Despite the importance of cacao in this area, no previous studies on its environmental impact and economic viability have yet been carried out. The main objective of this research is to fill this gap and, more specifically, perform a comparative analysis between CA and OA systems. For this purpose, primary information was gathered from 90 farms (44 conventional and 46 organic ones) that implement land management practices. The environmental performance of cacao production was assessed using a life cycle analysis methodology, with a cradle-to-farm gate approach. Up to twelve impact categories and five environmental and monetary efficiency indicators were estimated based on three functional units (1 kg of cacao, 1 kg of output sold, and 1 ha). Additionally, an economic viability analysis was performed, focused on profitability. The results show that organic management allows to reduce the environmental impact in all the analyzed categories, except for the land footprint, and improved the environmental and economic efficiency of agroforestry systems. The economic analysis shows no statistically significant differences between CA and OA profitability (net margin), which can be improved by selling co-products. Despite the low environmental impact of both types of system, economic profitability is certainly one of the weaknesses of cacao production in the Ecuadorian Amazon region. This study contributes to develop technical, production-related and political actions that could improve the economic cacao production situation without jeopardizing the environmental benefit obtained by these systems.
Assuntos
Cacau , Equador , Meio AmbienteRESUMO
Studies have reported enhancements in methane yield from pretreatment methods that benefit the anaerobic digestion (AD) of microalgae. However, energy return on investment (EROI), i.e., methane production enhancement achieved over energy input, may be unfavorable. Aiming to quantify EROI of AD microalgae pretreatment, about 180 experiments applied to 30 microalgae biomasses were compiled through an extensive literature survey, classified into 4 pretreatments (physical, enzymatic, chemical, and hybrid), and analyzed. Most of these pretreatments enhanced methane yield, especially the enzymatic alternative. EROI was evaluated for the most efficient pretreatments. Only in one thermal pretreatment the energy resulting from the increase in methane production exceeded the energy demanded by the biomass pretreatment (EROI 6.8) and other two thermal pretreatments presented EROI 1. The other pretreatments presented EROI < 1, concluding that none of the evaluated methods was energy-efficient. Feasibility of pretreatment requires advancements in low energy-demanding strategies and outstanding biomass densification.
Assuntos
Biocombustíveis/microbiologia , Metano/metabolismo , Microalgas/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Anaerobiose , Temperatura Alta , Microalgas/metabolismoRESUMO
We analyzed crop production, physical inputs, and land use at the country level to assess technological changes behind the threefold increase in global crop production from 1961 to 2014. We translated machinery, fuel, and fertilizer to embedded energy units that, when summed up, provided a measure of agricultural intensification (human subsidy per hectare) for crops in the 58 countries responsible for 95% of global production. Worldwide, there was a 137% increase in input use per hectare, reaching 13 EJ, or 2.6% of the world's primary energy supply, versus only a 10% increase in land use. Intensification was marked in Asia and Latin America, where input-use levels reached those that North America and Europe had in the earlier years of the period; the increase was more accentuated, irrespective of continent, for the 12 countries with mostly irrigated production. Half of the countries (28/58), mainly developed ones, had an average subsidy >5 GJ/ha/y (with fertilizers accounting for 27% in 1961 and 45% in 2014), with most of them (23/28) using about the same area or less than in 1961 (net land sparing of 31 Mha). Most of the remaining countries (24/30 with inputs <5 GJ/ha/y), mainly developing ones, increased their cropped area (net land extensification of 135 Mha). Overall, energy-use efficiency (crop output/inputs) followed a U-shaped trajectory starting at about 3 and finishing close to 4. The prospects of a more sustainable intensification are discussed, and the inadequacy of the land-sparing model expectation of protecting wilderness via intensified agriculture is highlighted.
Assuntos
Agricultura/história , Agricultura/estatística & dados numéricos , Produção Agrícola/estatística & dados numéricos , Produtos Agrícolas , Eficiência , Conservação dos Recursos Naturais , Fazendas , Fertilizantes , Abastecimento de Alimentos/estatística & dados numéricos , História do Século XX , História do Século XXI , Humanos , Modelos EstatísticosRESUMO
Soybean is the main product of Brazilian agribusiness, both production and income. Considering the increase in food and energy demand and the search for more sustainable production systems, this study aimed to analyze inputs and energy use of a possible area of expansion of soybean production: a system under sub irrigation management located in a lowland area of Cerrado biome, northern region of Brazil. Its environmental performance was compared to other Brazilian locations among them traditionally soybean producers. The evaluation and comparison was made through material and energy flow tools in order to determine the inputs embodied per area, as well as energy demand, availability and efficiency in the analyzed production system. Energy demand (IE) and energy availability (OE) of the analyzed production system were 7.6 and 57.1 GJ ha-1, respectively. Energy balance (EB) was 49,5 GJ ha-1, energy return over investment (EROI) was 7.5 and embodied energy in grains (EE) was 2,2 MJ kg-1, respectively. Highest energy consumption was due to the use of fertilizers, fuel and herbicide. The system is energy efficient, since it provides more energy than demands, and efficient when compared to usual production systems in other regions, however it is highly dependent on non-renewable energy.(AU)
A soja é o principal produto do agronegócio Brasileiro, em volume e geração de renda. Considerando o aumento da demanda por alimentos e energia, bem como a busca por sistemas de produção mais sustentáveis, o presente estudo teve como objetivo analisar o uso de energia oriunda de insumos agrícolas em área de possível expansão de produção de soja: sistema de produção sob subirrigação em área de várzea no Cerrado, região Norte do Brasil. Seu desempenho ambiental foi comparado a outros locais no Brasil, entre os quais regiões tradicionalmente produtores de soja. A avaliação e comparação foram feitas por meio do uso de ferramentas de fluxo de materiais e energia, a fim de determinar a quantidade de insumos utilizados por área, bem como a demanda, disponibilidade e eficiência do uso de energia no sistema de produção avaliado. A demanda (IE) e disponibilidade (OE) de energia foram de 7.6 e 57.1 GJ ha-1, respectivamente. O balanço energético (BE), o retorno de energia sobre o investimento (EROI) e a energia incorporada dos grãos (EE) foram 49.5 GJ ha-1, 7.5 e 2.2 MJ kg-1, respectivamente. O maior consumo de energia foi devido à utilização de fertilizantes, herbicidas e combustível. O sistema analisado é eficiente no uso da energia, uma vez que fornece mais energia do que é demandado, e eficiente quando comparado a sistemas de produção usuais em outras regiões, embora seja altamente dependente de energia de origem não-renovável.(AU)
Assuntos
Glycine max/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Pradaria , Fontes Geradoras de Energia/análise , Agricultura/métodosRESUMO
ABSTRACT: Soybean is the main product of Brazilian agribusiness, both production and income. Considering the increase in food and energy demand and the search for more sustainable production systems, this study aimed to analyze inputs and energy use of a possible area of expansion of soybean production: a system under sub irrigation management located in a lowland area of Cerrado biome, northern region of Brazil. Its environmental performance was compared to other Brazilian locations among them traditionally soybean producers. The evaluation and comparison was made through material and energy flow tools in order to determine the inputs embodied per area, as well as energy demand, availability and efficiency in the analyzed production system. Energy demand (IE) and energy availability (OE) of the analyzed production system were 7.6 and 57.1 GJ ha-1, respectively. Energy balance (EB) was 49,5 GJ ha-1, energy return over investment (EROI) was 7.5 and embodied energy in grains (EE) was 2,2 MJ kg-1, respectively. Highest energy consumption was due to the use of fertilizers, fuel and herbicide. The system is energy efficient, since it provides more energy than demands, and efficient when compared to usual production systems in other regions, however it is highly dependent on non-renewable energy.
RESUMO: A soja é o principal produto do agronegócio Brasileiro, em volume e geração de renda. Considerando o aumento da demanda por alimentos e energia, bem como a busca por sistemas de produção mais sustentáveis, o presente estudo teve como objetivo analisar o uso de energia oriunda de insumos agrícolas em área de possível expansão de produção de soja: sistema de produção sob subirrigação em área de várzea no Cerrado, região Norte do Brasil. Seu desempenho ambiental foi comparado a outros locais no Brasil, entre os quais regiões tradicionalmente produtores de soja. A avaliação e comparação foram feitas por meio do uso de ferramentas de fluxo de materiais e energia, a fim de determinar a quantidade de insumos utilizados por área, bem como a demanda, disponibilidade e eficiência do uso de energia no sistema de produção avaliado. A demanda (IE) e disponibilidade (OE) de energia foram de 7.6 e 57.1 GJ ha-1, respectivamente. O balanço energético (BE), o retorno de energia sobre o investimento (EROI) e a energia incorporada dos grãos (EE) foram 49.5 GJ ha-1, 7.5 e 2.2 MJ kg-1, respectivamente. O maior consumo de energia foi devido à utilização de fertilizantes, herbicidas e combustível. O sistema analisado é eficiente no uso da energia, uma vez que fornece mais energia do que é demandado, e eficiente quando comparado a sistemas de produção usuais em outras regiões, embora seja altamente dependente de energia de origem não-renovável.
RESUMO
Soybean is the main product of Brazilian agribusiness, both production and income. Considering the increase in food and energy demand and the search for more sustainable production systems, this study aimed to analyze inputs and energy use of a possible area of expansion of soybean production: a system under sub irrigation management located in a lowland area of Cerrado biome, northern region of Brazil. Its environmental performance was compared to other Brazilian locations among them traditionally soybean producers. The evaluation and comparison was made through material and energy flow tools in order to determine the inputs embodied per area, as well as energy demand, availability and efficiency in the analyzed production system. Energy demand (IE) and energy availability (OE) of the analyzed production system were 7.6 and 57.1 GJ ha-1, respectively. Energy balance (EB) was 49,5 GJ ha-1, energy return over investment (EROI) was 7.5 and embodied energy in grains (EE) was 2,2 MJ kg-1, respectively. Highest energy consumption was due to the use of fertilizers, fuel and herbicide. The system is energy efficient, since it provides more energy than demands, and efficient when compared to usual production systems in other regions, however it is highly dependent on non-renewable energy.
A soja é o principal produto do agronegócio Brasileiro, em volume e geração de renda. Considerando o aumento da demanda por alimentos e energia, bem como a busca por sistemas de produção mais sustentáveis, o presente estudo teve como objetivo analisar o uso de energia oriunda de insumos agrícolas em área de possível expansão de produção de soja: sistema de produção sob subirrigação em área de várzea no Cerrado, região Norte do Brasil. Seu desempenho ambiental foi comparado a outros locais no Brasil, entre os quais regiões tradicionalmente produtores de soja. A avaliação e comparação foram feitas por meio do uso de ferramentas de fluxo de materiais e energia, a fim de determinar a quantidade de insumos utilizados por área, bem como a demanda, disponibilidade e eficiência do uso de energia no sistema de produção avaliado. A demanda (IE) e disponibilidade (OE) de energia foram de 7.6 e 57.1 GJ ha-1, respectivamente. O balanço energético (BE), o retorno de energia sobre o investimento (EROI) e a energia incorporada dos grãos (EE) foram 49.5 GJ ha-1, 7.5 e 2.2 MJ kg-1, respectivamente. O maior consumo de energia foi devido à utilização de fertilizantes, herbicidas e combustível. O sistema analisado é eficiente no uso da energia, uma vez que fornece mais energia do que é demandado, e eficiente quando comparado a sistemas de produção usuais em outras regiões, embora seja altamente dependente de energia de origem não-renovável.
Assuntos
Agricultura/métodos , Fontes Geradoras de Energia/análise , Pradaria , Glycine max/crescimento & desenvolvimentoRESUMO
The amount of energy required to produce a commodity or to supply a service varies from one production system to another and consequently giving rise to differing levels of environmental efficiency. Moreover, since energy prices have been continuously increasing over time, this energy amount may be a factor that has economic worth. Biomass production has a variety of end-products such as food, energy, and fiber; thus, taking into account the similarity in end-product of different crops (e.g.: sunflower, peanuts, or soybean for oil) it is possible to evaluate which crops require less energy per functional unit, such as starch, oil, and protein. This information can be used in decision-making about policies for food safety or bioenergy. In this study, 23 crops were evaluated allowing for a comparison in terms of energy embodied per functional unit. Crops were grouped as follows: starch, oil, horticultural, perennial and fiber, to provide for a deeper analysis of alternatives for the groups, and subsidize further studies comparing conventional and alternative production systems such as organic or genetically modified organisms, in terms of energy. The best energy balance observed was whole sugarcane (juice, bagasse and straw) with a surplus of 268 GJ ha1 yr1; palm shows the highest energy return on investment with a ratio of approximately 30:1. For carbohydrates and protein production, cassava and soybean, respectively, emerged as the crops offering the greatest energy savings in the production of these functional foods.
Assuntos
Agricultura/métodos , Fertilizantes/análise , Fontes Geradoras de Energia , Equilíbrio EcológicoRESUMO
The amount of energy required to produce a commodity or to supply a service varies from one production system to another and consequently giving rise to differing levels of environmental efficiency. Moreover, since energy prices have been continuously increasing over time, this energy amount may be a factor that has economic worth. Biomass production has a variety of end-products such as food, energy, and fiber; thus, taking into account the similarity in end-product of different crops (e.g.: sunflower, peanuts, or soybean for oil) it is possible to evaluate which crops require less energy per functional unit, such as starch, oil, and protein. This information can be used in decision-making about policies for food safety or bioenergy. In this study, 23 crops were evaluated allowing for a comparison in terms of energy embodied per functional unit. Crops were grouped as follows: starch, oil, horticultural, perennial and fiber, to provide for a deeper analysis of alternatives for the groups, and subsidize further studies comparing conventional and alternative production systems such as organic or genetically modified organisms, in terms of energy. The best energy balance observed was whole sugarcane (juice, bagasse and straw) with a surplus of 268 GJ ha1 yr1; palm shows the highest energy return on investment with a ratio of approximately 30:1. For carbohydrates and protein production, cassava and soybean, respectively, emerged as the crops offering the greatest energy savings in the production of these functional foods.(AU)