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Disseminated leishmaniasis (DL) caused by L. braziliensis is characterized by the presence of 10 to more than 1000 lesions spread on the body. While protection against Leishmania is mediated by macrophages upon activation by IFN-γ produced by CD4+T cells, the pathology of disseminated leishmaniasis (DL) could be mediated by macrophages, NK, and CD8+T cells. Herein, we evaluate the participation of senescent CD8+T cells in the pathogenesis of DL. Methods: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), biopsies, co-cultures of CD8+T cells with uninfected and infected macrophages (MØ), and PBMC cultures stimulated with soluble L. braziliensis antigen (SLA) for 72 h from patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) and DL were used to characterize senescent CD8+T cells. Statistical analysis was performed using the Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests, followed by Dunn's. Results: Patients with DL have an increase in the frequency of circulating CD8+T cells that present a memory/senescent phenotype, while lesions from DL patients have an increase in the frequency of infiltrating CD8+T cells with a senescent/degranulation phenotype. In addition, after specific stimuli, DL patients' circulating CD8+T with memory/senescent profile, showing degranulation characteristics, increased upon SLA stimuli, and those specific CD8+T cells from DL patients had an increased degranulation phenotype, causing more apoptosis of infected target cells. Conclusions: DL patients show a higher frequency of cytotoxic senescent CD8+T cells compared to CL patients, and that could promote the lysis of infected cells, although without parasite killing, releasing Leishmania to the extracellular compartment, contributing to the spread of parasites.

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Introduction: Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome or Chronic Prostatitis (CPPS/CP) is the most prevalent urologic affliction among young adult men. It is a challenging condition to treat, which significantly decreases patient quality of life, mostly because of its still uncertain aetiology. In that regard, an autoimmune origin is a prominent supported theory. Indeed, studies in patients and in rodent models of Experimental Autoimmune Prostatitis (EAP) have provided compelling evidence suggesting a key role of CD4 Th1 cells in disease pathogenesis. However, the implication of other prominent effectors of the immune system, such as CD8 T cells, has yet to be studied. Methods: We herein analyzed the induction of prostatitis and the development of chronic pelvic pain in EAP using CD8 T cell-deficient animals. Results: We found similarly elevated PA-specific immune responses, with high frequencies of specific IFNg+CD4+ and IL17+CD4+ T cells in prostate draining lymph nodes from PA-immunized either CD8 KO or wild type animals with respect to controls. Moreover, these peripheral immune responses were paralleled by the development of significant chronic pelvic pain, and accompanied by prostate histological lesions, characterized by hemorrhage, epithelial cell desquamation, marked periglandular leukocyte infiltration, and increased collagen deposition in both, PA-immunized CD8 KO and wild type animals. As expected, control animals did not develop prostate histological lesions. Discussion: Our results indicate that CD8 T cells do not play a major role in EAP pathogenesis and chronic pelvic pain development. Moreover, our results corroborate the previous notion that a CD4 Th1 associated immune response drives the induction of prostate tissue inflammation and the development of chronic pelvic pain.

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Introduction: Innate immune training is a metabolic, functional, and epigenetic long-term reprogramming of innate cells triggered by different stimuli. This imprinting also reaches hematopoietic precursors in the bone marrow to sustain a memory-like phenotype. Dendritic cells (DCs) can exhibit memory-like responses, enhanced upon subsequent exposure to a pathogen; however, whether this imprinting is lineage and stimulus-restricted is still being determined. Nevertheless, the functional consequences of DCs training on the adaptive and protective immune response against non-infectious diseases remain unresolved. Methods: We evaluated the effect of the nontoxic cholera B subunit (CTB), LPS and LTA in the induction of trained immunity in murine DCs revealed by TNFa and LDH expression, through confocal microscopy. Additionally, we obtained bone marrow DCs (BMDCs) from mice treated with CTB, LPS, and LTA and evaluated training features in DCs and their antigen-presenting cell capability using multiparametric cytometry. Finally, we design an experimental melanoma mouse model to demonstrate protection induced by CTB-trained DCs in vivo. Results: CTB-trained DCs exhibit increased expression of TNFa, and metabolic reprogramming indicated by LDH expression. Moreover, CTB training has an imprint on DC precursors, increasing the number and antigen-presenting function in BMDCs. We found that training by CTB stimulates the recruitment of DC precursors and DCs infiltration at the skin and lymph nodes. Interestingly, training-induced by CTB promotes a highly co-stimulatory phenotype in tumor-infiltrating DCs (CD86+) and a heightened functionality of exhausted CD8 T cells (Ki67+, GZMB+), which were associated with a protective response against melanoma challenge in vivo. Conclusion: Our work indicates that CTB can induce innate immune training on DCs, which turns into an efficient adaptive immune response in the melanoma model and might be a potential immunotherapeutic approach for tumor growth control.

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Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is an gamma of herpes virus affecting exclusively humans, was the first oncogenic virus described and is associated with over seven different cancers. Curiously, the exchange of genes during viral infections has enabled the evolution of other cellular organisms, favoring new functions and the survival of the host. EBV has been co-evolving with mammals for hundreds of millions of years, and more than 95% of adults have been infected in one moment of their life. The infection is acquired primarily during childhood, in most cases as an asymptomatic infection. However, during adolescence or young adulthood, around 10 to 30% develop infectious mononucleosis. The NK and CD8+ T cells are the cytotoxic cells of the immune system that focus on antiviral responses. Importantly, an essential role of NK and CD8+ T cells has been demonstrated during the control and elimination of EBV-infected cells. Nonetheless, when the cytotoxic function of these cells is compromised, the infection increases the risk of developing lymphoproliferative diseases and cancer, often fatal. In this review, we delineate EBV infection and the importance of cytotoxic responses by NK and CD8+ T cells during the control and elimination of EBV-infected cells. Furthermore, we briefly discuss the main inborn errors of immunity that compromise cytotoxic responses by NK and CD8+ T cells, and how this scenario affects the antiviral response during EBV infection. Finally, we conclude the review by underlying the need for an effective EBV vaccine capable of preventing infection and the consequent development of malignancies and autoimmune diseases.

El virus Epstein-Barr es una variante del herpes virus que afecta exclusivamente a humanos; fue el primer virus oncogénico descrito y se ha relacionado con más de siete diferentes tipos de cáncer. Curiosamente, el intercambio de genes debido a infecciones virales ha permitido la evolución de los organismos celulares, favoreciendo el desarrollo de nuevas funciones y supervivencia del hospedero. El virus Epstein-Barr comparte cientos de millones de años de coevolución con la especie humana y más del 95% de la población adulta mundial se ha infectado en algún momento de su vida. La infección se adquiere principalmente durante la infancia, y en la mayoría de los casos aparece sin ninguna manifestación grave aparente. Sin embargo, en los adolescentes y la población joven-adulta, alrededor de un 10 a 30% evolucionan a mononucleosis infecciosa. Las células NK y T CD8+ son células citotóxicas cruciales durante las respuestas antivirales y se ha demostrado que que controlan y eliminan la infección por el virus Epstein-Barr. No obstante, cuando se afecta su función efectora, el desenlace puede ser fatal. El objetivo de esta revisión es describir la infección por el virus Epstein-Barr y el papel decisivo de las células NK y T CD8+ durante el control y eliminación de la infección. Además, se discuten brevemente los principales defectos genéticos que afectan a estas células y conllevan a la incapacidad para eliminar el virus. Finalmente, se resalta la necesidad de elaborar una vacuna efectiva contra el virus Epstein-Barr y cómo podrían evitarse los procesos neoplásicos y enfermedades autoinmunes.

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Valganciclovir (VGC) was used in a randomized clinical trial in patients with disseminated Kaposi Sarcoma/human immunodeficiency virus (DKS/HIV) as add-on therapy to evaluate the proinflammatory axis tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and its receptors (TNFRs) in T cells. Two treatment schedules were used: an experimental regime (ER) and a conventional treatment (CT). Mononuclear cells from patients with DKS/HIV were obtained at baseline (W0), 4 (W4), and 12 weeks (W12). Ten DKS/HIV patients received CT (antiretroviral therapy [cART]) and 10 ER (valganciclovir [VGC] initially, plus cART at the fourth week). HIV+ without KS and HIV- patient groups were included as controls. Correlation between T-cell subsets and HHV-8 viral load (VL) and a multivariate linear regression was performed. Data showed that DKS/HIV patients have an increased frequency of CD8+ T cells, which display a high density of CD8 expression. The ER scheme increases naïve and central memory CD4+ T cells at W4 and W12 of follow-up and induces a balanced distribution of activated CD4+ T-cell subsets. Moreover, ER decreases solTNFR2 since W4 and CT decreased the transmembrane forms of TNF axis molecules. Although CT induces a positive correlation between HHV-8 VL and TNFRs, the use of ER positively correlates with TNF and TNFRs levels through follow-up and a moderate correlation with HHV-8 VL and TNF soluble levels. In conclusion, VGC, as an add-on therapy in DKS/HIV patients, gradually modulates the activation of CD4+ T-cell subsets and the TNF/TNFRs axis, suggesting a better regulation of the inflammatory status.

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Introduction and methods: In this present work, coronavirus subfamilies and SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern (VOCs) were investigated for the presence of MHC-I immunodominant viral peptides using in silico and in vitro tools. Results: In our results, HLA-A*02 haplotype showed the highest number of immunodominant epitopes but with the lowest combined prediction score. Furthermore, a decrease in combined prediction score was observed for HLA-A*02-restricted epitopes when the original strain was compared to the VOCs, indicating that the mutations on the VOCs are promoting escape from HLA-A2-mediated antigen presentation, which characterizes a immune evasion process. Additionally, epitope signature analysis revealed major immunogenic peptide loss for structural (S) and non-structural (ORF8) proteins of VOCs in comparison to the Wuhan sequence. Discussion: These results may indicate that the antiviral CD8+ T-cell responses generated by original strains could not be sufficient for clearance of variants in either newly or reinfection with SARS-CoV-2. In contrast, N epitopes remain the most conserved and reactive peptides across SARS-CoV-2 VOCs. Overall, our data could contribute to the rational design and development of new vaccinal platforms to induce a broad cellular CD8+ T cell antiviral response, aiming at controlling viral transmission of future SARS-CoV-2 variants.

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Achieving a cure for HIV infection is a global priority. There is substantial evidence supporting a central role for CD8+ T cells in the natural control of HIV, suggesting the rationale that these cells may be exploited to achieve remission or cure of this infection. In this work, we review the major challenges for achieving an HIV cure, the models of HIV remission, and the mechanisms of HIV control mediated by CD8+ T cells. In addition, we discuss strategies based on this cell population that could be used in the search for an HIV cure. Finally, we analyze the current challenges and perspectives to translate this basic knowledge toward scalable HIV cure strategies.

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Infection with Leishmania amazonensis and L. mexicana may lead to diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis. The cure is exceptional, especially for the strange case of this lady. Case report: The patient acquired the disease in childhood and remained with lesions for over 30 years, albeit several treatments. She worsened after a pregnancy, developing disseminated lesions. Miltefosine with amphotericin B and pentamidine resulted in remission. Lesions reappeared after one year, accompanied by intra-nasal infiltration of the disease. The nasal spraying of a single ampoule of pentavalent antimoniate resulted in the sustained disappearance of the nasal symptoms and all the cutaneous lesions. After over eight years, she remains disease-free, albeit under renal replacement therapy. The high nasal mucosal antimonial concentration may explain the long-lasting cure via new MHC class I epitope-specific CD8+ cell clones against L. amazonensis present in the nasal mucosa.

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This work analyzed exhaustion markers in CD8+ T-cell subpopulations in 21 samples of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from individuals with ocular toxoplasmosis (n = 9), chronic asymptomatic toxoplasmosis (n = 7), and non-infected people (n = 5) by using RT-qPCR and flow cytometry techniques. The study found that gene expression of PD-1 and CD244, but not LAG-3, was higher in individuals with ocular toxoplasmosis versus individuals with asymptomatic infection or uninfected. Expression of PD1 in CD8+ central memory (CM) cells was higher in nine individuals with toxoplasmosis versus five uninfected individuals (p = .003). After ex vivo stimulation, an inverse correlation was found between the exhaustion markers and quantitative clinical characteristics (lesion size, recurrence index, and number of lesions). A total exhaustion phenotype was found in 55.5% (5/9) of individuals with ocular toxoplasmosis. Our results suggest that the CD8+ exhaustion phenotype is involved in the pathogenesis of ocular toxoplasmosis.

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BACKGROUND: Computed tomographies (CT) are useful for identifying muscle loss in non-small lung cancer (NSCLC) cachectic patients. However, we lack consensus on the best cutoff point for pectoralis muscle loss. We aimed to characterize NSCLC patients based on muscularity, clinical data, and the transcriptional profile from the tumor microenvironment to build a cachexia classification model. METHODS: We used machine learning to generate a muscle loss prediction model, and the tumor's cellular and transcriptional profile was characterized in patients with low muscularity. First, we measured the pectoralis muscle area (PMA) of 211 treatment-naive NSCLC patients using CT available in The Cancer Imaging Archive. The cutoffs were established using machine learning algorithms (CART and Cutoff Finder) on PMA, clinical, and survival data. We evaluated the prediction model in a validation set (36 NSCLC). Tumor RNA-Seq (GSE103584) was used to profile the transcriptome and cellular composition based on digital cytometry. RESULTS: CART demonstrated that a lower PMA was associated with a high risk of death (HR = 1.99). Cutoff Finder selected PMA cutoffs separating low-muscularity (LM) patients based on the risk of death (P-value = 0.003; discovery set). The cutoff presented 84% of success in classifying low muscle mass. The high risk of LM patients was also found in the validation set. Tumor RNA-Seq revealed 90 upregulated secretory genes in LM that potentially interact with muscle cell receptors. The LM upregulated genes enriched inflammatory biological processes. Digital cytometry revealed that LM patients presented high proportions of cytotoxic and exhausted CD8+ T cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our prediction model identified cutoffs that distinguished patients with lower PMA and survival with an inflammatory and immunosuppressive TME enriched with inflammatory factors and CD8+ T cells.

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CD8+ T cells play basic roles in the immune system in a tumor microenvironment (TME) to fight cancer. Several reports have suggested signs of the involvement of tumor protein p53 (TP53) in a complex immune system network. Moreover, our previous research indicated that TP53 orchestrates the polarization and infiltration of macrophages into the TME. In the present study, the clinical function of TP53 status (wild/mutant) in CD8+ T cell infiltration was assessed using more than 10,000 The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) samples from 30 cancer types through Tumor Immune Estimation (TIMER). Our investigation revealed that CD8+ T cell infiltration was higher in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSC) and uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma (UCEC) patients with wild-type TP53 than in those with mutant TP53. Wild-type TP53 conferred a good prognosis for HNSC and UCEC (P<0.05). In contrast, CD8+ T cell infiltration in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) patients with wild-type TP53 was much lower than in those with mutant TP53. Notably, clinical outcomes for LUAD with wild-type TP53 were poor (P<0.05). This study was the first to provide insights into the novel association of TP53 with CD8+ T cells infiltration in the TME in patients with HNSC, LUAD, and UCEC. Therefore, TP53 status acts as a prognostic marker, and this can be used as a basis to further study the effect of targeting TP53 in these patients. Furthermore, our study found that TP53 status was a reliable predictive factor and therapeutic target in patients with HNSC and UCEC.

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ABSTRACT Immune exhaustion and senescence are scarcely studied in HIV-pediatric patients. We studied the circulatory CD8 T cells activation/exhaustion and senescent phenotype of children and adolescents vertically infected with HIV or uninfected controls based on the expression of human leukocyte antigen (HLA-DR), CD38, T cell immunoglobulin and immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM) domain (TIGIT), programmed death 1 (PD-1) and CD57 by flow cytometry, during approximately one year. Eleven HIV-infected (HI) and nine HIV-uninfected (HU) children/adolescents who received two doses or one dose of meningococcal C conjugate vaccine (MenC), respectively, were involved in this study. Blood samples were collected before the immunization (T0), 1-2 months after the first dose (T1), and 1-2 months after the second dose (T2), which was administered approximately one year after the first one. HI patients not receiving combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) showed a higher frequency of CD8 T cells TIGIT+, PD-1+ or CD57+, as well as a higher frequency of CD8 T cells co-expressing CD38/HLA-DR/TIGIT or CD38/HLA-DR/PD-1 when compared to HI treated or HU individuals, at all times that they were assessed. CD8 T cells co-expressing CD38/DR/TIGIT were inversely correlated with the CD4/CD8 ratio but positively associated with viral load. The co-expression of CD38/DR/TIGIT or CD38/DR/PD-1 on CD8 T cells was also inversely associated with the CD4 T cells expressing co-stimulatory molecules CD127/CD28. The results showed a higher expression of exhaustion/senescence markers on CD8 T cells of untreated HI children/adolescents and its correlations with viral load.

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As an important component of solid tumors, mast cells show specific phenotypes in various tumor microenvironments. However, the precise mechanism of mast cell accumulation and the phenotypic features of thyroid cancer (TC) remain largely unknown. Here, we found that mast cells were obviously recruited to tumor tissue by TC-derived stem cell factor (SCF). With tumor progression, mast cell levels increased gradually. In addition, intratumoral mast cells expressed higher levels of the immunosuppressive molecule galectin-9, which effectively suppresses CD8+ T-cell antitumor immunity in vitro. Blocking galectin-9 on tumor-infiltrating mast cells reversed the immunosuppression of CD8+ T cells. In conclusion, our data elucidated novel protumorigenic and immunosuppressive roles of mast cells in TC. In addition, our results indicated that blocking mast cells may impede tumor progression and ameliorate the prognosis of TC patients.

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Dopamine has emerged as an important regulator of immunity. Recent evidence has shown that signalling through low-affinity dopamine receptors exerts anti-inflammatory effects, whilst stimulation of high-affinity dopamine receptors potentiates immunity in different models. However, the dopaminergic regulation of CD8+ T-cells in anti-tumour immunity remains poorly explored. Here, we studied the role of dopamine receptor D3 (DRD3), which displays the highest affinity for dopamine, in the function of CD8+ T-cells and its consequences in the anti-tumour immune response. We observed that the deficiency of Drd3 (the gene encoding DRD3) in CD8+ T-cells limits their in vivo expansion, leading to an impaired anti-tumour response in a mouse melanoma model. Mechanistic analyses suggest that DRD3 stimulation favours the production of interleukin 2 (IL-2) and the surface expression of CD25, the α-chain IL-2 receptor, which are required for expansion and effector differentiation of CD8+ T-cells. Thus, our results provide genetic and pharmacologic evidence indicating that DRD3 favours the production of IL-2 by CD8+ T-cells, which is associated with higher expansion and acquisition of effector function of these cells, promoting a more potent anti-tumour response in a melanoma mouse model. These findings contribute to understanding how dopaminergic signalling affects the cellular immune response and represent an opportunity to improve melanoma therapy.

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Virtual memory CD8+ T cells (TVM) have been described as cells with a memory-like phenotype but without previous antigen (Ag) exposure. TVM cells have the ability to respond better to innate stimuli rather than by TCR engagement, producing large amounts of interferon gamma (IFNγ) after stimulation with interleukin (IL)-12 plus IL-18. As a result of the phenotypic similarity, TVM cells have been erroneously included in the central memory T cell subset for many years. However, they can now be discriminated via the CD49d receptor, which is up-regulated only on conventional memory T cells (TMEM) and effector T cells (TEFF) after specific cognate Ag recognition by a TCR. In this work we show that systemic expression of IL-12 plus IL-18 induced an alteration in the normal TVM vs TMEM/TEFF distribution in secondary lymphoid organs and a preferential enrichment of TVM cells in the melanoma (B16) and the pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (KPC) tumor models. Using our KPC bearing OT-I mouse model, we observed a significant increase in CD8+ T cell infiltrating the tumor islets after IL-12+IL-18 stimulation with a lower average speed when compared to those from control mice. This finding indicates a stronger interaction of T cells with tumor cells after cytokine stimulation. These results correlate with a significant reduction in tumor size in both tumor models in IL-12+IL-18-treated OT-I mice compared to control OT-I mice. Interestingly, the absence of IFNγ completely abolished the high antitumor capacity induced by IL-12+IL-18 expression, indicating an important role for these cytokines in early tumor growth control. Thus, our studies provide significant new information that indicates an important role of TVM cells in the immune response against cancer.

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High doses of interleukin-2 (IL-2) have been used for the treatment of melanoma and renal cell carcinoma, but this therapy has limited efficacy, with a ~15% response rate. Remarkably, 7%-9% of patients achieve complete or long-lasting responses. Many patients treated with IL-2 experienced an expansion of regulatory T cells (Tregs), specifically the expansion of ICOS+ highly suppressive Tregs, which correlate with worse clinical outcomes. This partial efficacy together with the high toxicity associated with the therapy has limited the use of IL-2-based therapy. Taking into account the understanding of IL-2 structure, signaling, and in vivo functions, some efforts to improve the cytokine properties are currently under study. In previous work, we described an IL-2 mutein with higher antitumor activity and less toxicity than wtIL-2. Mutein was in silico designed for losing the binding capacity to CD25 and for preferential stimulation of effector cells CD8+ and NK cells but not Tregs. Mutein induces a higher anti-metastatic effect than wtIL-2, but the extent of the in vivo antitumor activity was still unexplored. In this work, it is shown that mutein induces a strong antitumor effect on four primary tumor models, being effective even in those models where wtIL-2 does not work. Furthermore, mutein can change the in vivo balance between Tregs and T CD8+ memory/activated cells toward immune activation, in both healthy and tumor-bearing mice. This change reaches the tumor microenvironment and seems to be the major explanation for mutein efficacy in vivo.

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CD8+ T lymphocytes are one of the main effector cells of the immune system, they protect the organism against intracellular threats such as viruses and bacteria, as well as neoplasms. It is currently well established that CD8+ T cells have distinct immune responses, given by their phenotypes Tc1, Tc2, Tc17, and TcReg. The cellular plasticity of such phenotypes depends on the presence of different combinations of cytokines in the extracellular medium. It is known that metabolic imbalances play an important role in immune response, but the precise role of metabolic disturbances on the differentiation and function of CD8+ T cells, however, has not been explored. In this work, we used a computational model to explore the potential effect of metabolic alterations such as hyperglycemia, high alcohol consumption, dyslipidemia, and diabetes on CD8+ T cell differentiation. Our model predicts that metabolic alterations preclude the effector function of all CD8+ T cell phenotypes except for TcReg cells. It also suggests that such inhibition originates from the increase of reactive oxygen species in response to metabolic stressors. Finally, we simulated the outcome of treating metabolic-inhibited CD8+ T cells with drugs targeting key molecules such as mTORC1, mTORC2, Akt, and others. We found that overstimulation of mTORC2 may restore cell differentiation and functions of all effector phenotypes, even in diabetic patients. These findings highlight the importance of our predictive model to find potential targets to strengthen immunosuppressed patients in chronic diseases, like diabetes.

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PURPOSE: Under the continuous stimulation of tumor antigen in the tumor microenvironment, CD8+T cells will enter a state of functional defect or failure, which cannot effectively prevent the progression of lung cancer. Therefore, finding potential targets for immunotherapy in lung cancer has broad prospects. METHODS: In the early stage of this study, the genes related to immune infiltration in lung cancer were found through the analysis on multiple datasets (GSE116959, GSE139032 and GSE111894). Characteristics of candidate genes were identified from transcriptome, methylation, single cell sequencing and other dimensions, respectively. Moreover, the correlation between candidate genes and immunotherapy-related genes and mutated genes of lung cancer was further identified. Finally, the expression of the candidate genes was detected with an online immunohistochemistry database. RESULTS: According to the above research, it was found that CCL4 (chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 4) was abnormally highly expressed in samples from patients with NSCLC and had certain methylation characteristics. In addition, CCL4 was also closely associated with infiltration of immune cells, such as B cells and CD8+T cells. Interestingly, the aberrant expression of CCL4 affected the survival of CD8+T cells. Single cell sequencing results also showed that CCL4 was highly expressed in CD8+T cells and was involved in biological functions such as generation cycle. Finally, CCL4 expression was positively associated with PD-1 and PD-L1, and also with mutant genes, such as EGFR, ALK and ROS1, associated with the treatment for lung cancer. CONCLUSION: CCL4 may be a potential target for immunotherapy in patients with NSCLC.

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Radiotherapy (RT), unlike chemotherapy, is one of the most routinely used and effective genotoxic and immune response inducing cancer therapies with an advantage of reduced side effects. However, cancer can relapse after RT owing to multiple factors, including acquired tumor resistance, immune suppressive microenvironment buildup, increased DNA repair, thus favoring tumor metastasis. Efforts to mitigate these undesirable effects have drawn interest in combining RT with immunotherapy, particularly the use of immune checkpoint inhibitors, to tilt the pre-existing tumor stromal microenvironment into long-lasting therapy-induced antitumor immunity at multiple metastatic sites (abscopal effects). This multimodal therapeutic strategy can alleviate the increased T cell priming and decrease tumor growth and metastasis, thus emerging as a significant approach to sustain as long-term antitumor immunity. To understand more about this synergism, a detailed cellular mechanism underlying the dynamic interaction between tumor and immune cells within the irradiated tumor microenvironment needs to be explored. Hence, in the present review, we have attempted to evaluate various RT-inducible immune factors, which can be targeted by immunotherapy and provide detailed explanation to optimally maximize their synergy with immunotherapy for long-lasting antitumor immunity. Moreover, we have critically assessed various combinatorial approaches along with their challenges and described strategies to modify them in addition to providing approaches for optimal synergistic effects of the combination.

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Background: Tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (TB-IRIS) is a clinical aggravation of TB symptoms observed among a fraction of HIV coinfected patients shortly after the start of antiretroviral therapy (ART). Of note, TB-IRIS is characterized by exacerbated inflammation and tissue damage that occurs in response to the elevated production of CD4+ T cell-derived IFN-γ. Nevertheless, the possible participation of CD8+ T cells in TB-IRIS development remains unclear. Methods: We performed a comprehensive assessment of the composition of CD8+ T cell memory subsets and their association with circulating inflammation-related molecules in TB-HIV coinfected patients initiating ART. Results: We found that TB-IRIS individuals display higher frequencies of Antigen-experienced CD8+ T cells during the onset of IRIS and that the levels of these cells positively correlate with baseline mycobacterial smear grade. TB-IRIS individuals exhibited higher frequencies of effector memory and lower percentages of naïve CD8+ T cells than their Non-IRIS counterparts. In both TB-IRIS and Non-IRIS patients, ART commencement was associated with fewer significant correlations among memory CD8+ T cells and cells from other immune compartments. Networks analysis revealed distinct patterns of correlation between each memory subset with inflammatory cytokines suggesting different dynamics of CD8+ T cell memory subsets reconstitution. TB-IRIS patients displayed lower levels of memory cells positive for CXCR3 (a chemokine receptor that plays a role in trafficking activated CD8+ T cells to the tissues) than Non-IRIS individuals before and after ART. Furthermore, we found that CXCR3+ naïve CD8+ T cells were inversely associated with the risk of TB-IRIS development. On the other hand, we noticed that the frequencies of CXCR3+ effector CD8+ T cells were positively associated with the probability of TB-IRIS development. Conclusion: Our data suggest that TB-IRIS individuals display a distinct profile of memory CD8+ T cell subsets reconstitution after ART initiation. Moreover, our data point to a differential association between the frequencies of CXCR3+ CD8+ T cells and the risk of TB-IRIS development. Collectively, our findings lend insights into the potential role of memory CD8+ T cells in TB-IRIS pathophysiology.

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