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INTRODUCTION: Lead industries are one of the major sources of environmental pollution and can affect human through different activities, including industrial processes, metal plating, mining, battery recycling, etc. Although different studies have documented the various sources of lead exposure, studies highlighting different types of industries as sources of environmental contamination are limited. Therefore, this narrative review aims to focus mainly on lead industries as significant sources of environmental and human contamination. CONTENT: Based on the keywords searched in bibliographic databases we found 44 relevant articles that provided information on lead present in soil, water, and blood or all components among participants living near high-risk areas. We presented three case scenarios to highlight how lead industries have affected the health of citizens in Vietnam, Uruguay, and Malaysia. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK: Factories conducting mining, e-waste processing, used lead-acid battery recycling, electronic repair, and toxic waste sites were the primary industries for lead exposure. Our study has shown lead exposure due to industrial activities in Vietnam, Uruguay, Malaysia and calls for attention to the gaps in strategic and epidemiologic efforts to understand sources of environmental exposure to lead fully. Developing strategies and guidelines to regulate industrial activities, finding alternatives to reduce lead toxicity and exposure, and empowering the public through various community awareness programs can play a crucial role in controlling exposure to lead.

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Lead is one of the 10 most toxic chemicals of greatest concern for its effects on public health. Predominantly, in undeveloped countries, high blood lead levels (BLLs) persist in the population. To develop intervention strategies that may reduce lead exposure in populations, it is a priority to know the sources of lead pollution. The objective of this critical review and meta-analysis is to assess whether there is an association between different sources of lead exposure and the mean difference in blood lead levels in people exposed. To identify the major lead source exposure, a statistical analysis was performed on selection studies. This investigation reveals the limited information available on the sources of lead in Mexico and other lead producer countries, such as Croatia, Ecuador, Brazil, South Korea, India, Nigeria, Turkey, and China. Meta-analysis could be performed only in battery, smelting mining, and glazed ceramic workers. Battery manufacturing workers have the highest mean difference level of lead in their blood worldwide. Mexico has the second highest mean difference BLL in battery workers in the world. An interesting difference between the mean difference in BLL in mining workers from uncontrolled industry (-39.38) and controlled industry (-5.68) was found. This difference highlighted the success of applying strict control of lead sources and community education to reduce BLL and its potential harmful effects on human health and the environment. Children living near mining sites have the highest mean difference BLL (-11.1). This analysis may aid in assessing the source of lead exposure associated with a range of BLLs in people. Furthermore, this review highlights several social and cultural patterns associated with lead exposure and lead levels in control populations. These results could help to develop international lead regulations and appropriate public health guidelines to protect people around the world.

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Delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) enzyme catalyzes the second phase of the heme biosynthesis and is involved in lead toxicokinetics. This research aimed to evaluate its influence on the relationship between blood lead (PbB) levels and intellectual performance in Afro-Brazilian children. PbB, hemoglobin concentration, ALAD activity, and polymorphism were determined in whole blood. Anthropometric, socioeconomic, and family environment stimuli data were collected with appropriate instruments. The non-verbal intelligence of children and their mothers or guardians was assessed using the correspondent Raven's Progressive Matrix versions. The medians (range) of PbB levels and ALAD activity were 1.0 µg/dL (0.1-21.3) and, 71 U/L (31-113), respectively. ALAD G177C was distributed as follows: 97.9% for ALAD1/1 and 2.1% for ALAD1/2 genotypes. The mean of Raven raw score was 19.3 (± 5.6) points and there were no differences according to sex or environmental Pb exposure. No statistically significant association was observed between PbB level and children's IQ. However, ALAD activity presented an inverse significant association with PbB levels, children's percentile IQ, and children's IQ/Age ratio, suggesting a neuroprotective role of ALAD1 genotype in those with low PbB level.

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This study aimed to evaluate the exposure to environmental lead (Pb) of children from a traditional community of African descent in Brazil and the effects on hematological parameters. Children (n = 75) aged 5.5-13 years from the exposed areas classified as low (LEx) and moderately (MEx) exposed were compared with children (n = 75) of a control group (CG). Dust Pb loading rates (RtPbs) at children's homes were measured. Peripheral venous blood samples were collected to assess Pb biomarkers of exposure and effects. All Pb determinations were performed by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. The median (IQR) of RtPb, PbB level, and ALA-D activity were 65 (25-137) µgPb/m2/30 days, 1.0 (0.1-2.8) µg/dL, and 71 (55-86) U/L, respectively. Spearman correlation evidenced the relationship of PbB with RtPb (rho = 0.368, P < 0.001) and ALA-D activity (rho = -0.587; P ˂ 0.001). After adjusting for exposure degree and child's age, a decline of 7.4 U/L in ALA-D activity was associated with a 10-fold increase in PbB. The prevalence ratio of elevated PbB (>5 µg/dL) in LEx and MEx areas were 1.5 and 3.7, respectively. Indoor dust exposure, living near pottery workshops and the secondary exposure were the main determinants of elevated PbB levels, which were associated with hematological effects.

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As habilidades sociais são reconhecidas como fator de proteção ao longo do desenvolvimento humano, contra os impactos dos fatores de risco. Neste estudo, considerando a situação de risco de crianças e adolescentes contaminadas por chumbo, buscou-se identificar as variáveis (habilidades sociais, práticas parentais, problemas de comportamento e competência acadêmica) que as diferenciam das não contaminadas e a possível função protetora das habilidades sociais sobre problemas de comportamento em ambos os grupos. Participaram desta pesquisa 100 crianças, suas mães e professores. Os problemas de comportamento, a competência acadêmica e as habilidades sociais das crianças foram avaliados pelo Sistema de Avaliação de Habilidades Sociais (SSRS-BR); as habilidades sociais dos adolescentes pelo Inventário de Habilidades Sociais para Adolescentes (IHSA-Del-Prette). As práticas parentais foram avaliadas pelo Inventário de Estilos Parentais (IEP). Com base nas análises de variância, discriminante e de mediação, foi possível identificar diferenças entre os dois grupos, com maior comprometimento nas crianças contaminadas, exceto para a habilidade social de assertividade autoavaliada, cujo resultado apontou maior repertório para as crianças intoxicadas por chumbo. Comprovou-se também a função mediadora das habilidades sociais minimizando o impacto da plumbemia sobre os problemas de comportamento. O conjunto dos resultados reforça a ideia de que um repertório elaborado de habilidades sociais pode estar relacionado com a competência cognitiva das crianças e adolescentes.

Social skills are recognized as protection factor during human development, against the impacts of risk factors. In this study, considering the risk of children and adolescents contaminated by lead, we sought to identify variables (social skills, parenting practices, behavior problems and academic competence) that distinguish them from uncontaminated and the possible protective role of social skills on behavioral problems in both groups. A sample of 100 children, their mothers and teachers participated in this study. Behavior problems and academic competence were assessed by Social Skills Rating (SSRS-BR); the social skills by SSRS-BR and Inventory of Social Skills for Adolescents (IHSA- Del Prette). Parenting practices were assessed by the Inventory of Parental Styles (IEP). Based on analyzis of variance, discriminant and mediation, it was possible to identify differences between the two groups, with greater impairment in children contaminated, except for the social skill self evaluation assertiveness, and the result showed the best repertoire for lead-poisoned children. It was proved also the mediating role of social skills while minimizing the impact of blood lead level on behavior problems. The overall results showed the notion that a repertoire of social skills may be related to cognitive skills of children and adolescents.

Las habilidades sociales se reconocen como factor de protección sobre el desarrollo humano, de los efectos de los factores de riesgo. En este estudio, teniendo en cuenta la situación de los niños y adolescentes intoxicados con plomo, hemos tratado de identificar las variables (habilidades sociales, prácticas parentales, problemas de conducta y de competencia académica) que las diferencian de no intoxicado y el posible papel protector de las habilidades sociales en los problemas de conducta en los dos grupos. El estudio reunió a 100 niños, sus madres y maestros. Los problemas de conducta y competencia académica se evaluaron mediante SSRS-BR; habilidades sociales por Sistema de evaluación de habilidades sociales (SSRS-BR) y Inventario de Habilidades Sociales Adolescentes (IHSA-Del-Prette). Prácticas parentales fueron evaluados por lo Inventario de Estilos Parentales (IEP). Con base en el análisis de la varianza, discriminante y la mediación fue posible identificar las diferencias entre los dos grupos, con mayor impacto en los niños infectados, a excepción de la asertividad autoavaliada, cuyo resultado mostró mejor repertorio para niños intoxicados por plomo. Se demuestra también el papel mediador de las habilidades sociales, minimizando el impacto de plomo en la sangre en los problemas de la conducta. Los resultados globales refuerzan la nocíon de que un repertorio de habilidades sociales puede estar relacionado con las habilidades cognitivas de los niños y adolescentes.

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As habilidades sociais são reconhecidas como fator de proteção ao longo do desenvolvimento humano, contra os impactos dos fatores de risco. Neste estudo, considerando a situação de risco de crianças e adolescentes contaminadas por chumbo, buscou-se identificar as variáveis (habilidades sociais, práticas parentais, problemas de comportamento e competência acadêmica) que as diferenciam das não contaminadas e a possível função protetora das habilidades sociais sobre problemas de comportamento em ambos os grupos. Participaram desta pesquisa 100 crianças, suas mães e professores. Os problemas de comportamento, a competência acadêmica e as habilidades sociais das crianças foram avaliados pelo Sistema de Avaliação de Habilidades Sociais (SSRS-BR); as habilidades sociais dos adolescentes pelo Inventário de Habilidades Sociais para Adolescentes (IHSA-Del-Prette). As práticas parentais foram avaliadas pelo Inventário de Estilos Parentais (IEP). Com base nas análises de variância, discriminante e de mediação, foi possível identificar diferenças entre os dois grupos, com maior comprometimento nas crianças contaminadas, exceto para a habilidade social de assertividade autoavaliada, cujo resultado apontou maior repertório para as crianças intoxicadas por chumbo. Comprovou-se também a função mediadora das habilidades sociais minimizando o impacto da plumbemia sobre os problemas de comportamento. O conjunto dos resultados reforça a ideia de que um repertório elaborado de habilidades sociais pode estar relacionado com a competência cognitiva das crianças e adolescentes. (AU)

Social skills are recognized as protection factor during human development, against the impacts of risk factors. In this study, considering the risk of children and adolescents contaminated by lead, we sought to identify variables (social skills, parenting practices, behavior problems and academic competence) that distinguish them from uncontaminated and the possible protective role of social skills on behavioral problems in both groups. A sample of 100 children, their mothers and teachers participated in this study. Behavior problems and academic competence were assessed by Social Skills Rating (SSRS-BR); the social skills by SSRS-BR and Inventory of Social Skills for Adolescents (IHSA- Del Prette). Parenting practices were assessed by the Inventory of Parental Styles (IEP). Based on analyzis of variance, discriminant and mediation, it was possible to identify differences between the two groups, with greater impairment in children contaminated, except for the social skill self evaluation assertiveness, and the result showed the best repertoire for lead-poisoned children. It was proved also the mediating role of social skills while minimizing the impact of blood lead level on behavior problems. The overall results showed the notion that a repertoire of social skills may be related to cognitive skills of children and adolescents. (AU)

Las habilidades sociales se reconocen como factor de protección sobre el desarrollo humano, de los efectos de los factores de riesgo. En este estudio, teniendo en cuenta la situación de los niños y adolescentes intoxicados con plomo, hemos tratado de identificar las variables (habilidades sociales, prácticas parentales, problemas de conducta y de competencia académica) que las diferencian de no intoxicado y el posible papel protector de las habilidades sociales en los problemas de conducta en los dos grupos. El estudio reunió a 100 niños, sus madres y maestros. Los problemas de conducta y competencia académica se evaluaron mediante SSRS-BR; habilidades sociales por Sistema de evaluación de habilidades sociales (SSRS-BR) y Inventario de Habilidades Sociales Adolescentes (IHSA-Del-Prette). Prácticas parentales fueron evaluados por lo Inventario de Estilos Parentales (IEP). Con base en el análisis de la varianza, discriminante y la mediación fue posible identificar las diferencias entre los dos grupos, con mayor impacto en los niños infectados, a excepción de la asertividad autoavaliada, cuyo resultado mostró mejor repertorio para niños intoxicados por plomo. Se demuestra también el papel mediador de las habilidades sociales, minimizando el impacto de plomo en la sangre en los problemas de la conducta. Los resultados globales refuerzan la nocíon de que un repertorio de habilidades sociales puede estar relacionado con las habilidades cognitivas de los niños y adolescentes. (AU)

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BACKGROUND: Although there has been success in reducing lead exposure with the phase-out of leaded gasoline, exposure to lead in Mexico continues to threaten the health of millions, much of which is from lead-based glazes used in pottery that leaches into food. OBJECTIVES: An extensive historical review and analysis of available data on blood lead levels in Mexican populations was conducted. We used a calculated geometric mean to evaluate the effect of lead on the pediatric burden of disease. METHODS: An extensive bibliographic search identified 83 published articles from 1978 to 2010 with blood lead level (BLL) data in Mexican populations representing 150 data points from more than 50,000 study participants. Values from these publications were categorized into various groupings. We then calculated the incidence of disease and disability-adjusted life-years resulting from these BLLs using the World Health Organization's burden of disease spreadsheets for mild mental retardation. RESULTS: Reviewing all relevant studies, the geometric means of Mexican BLLs in urban and rural areas were found to be 8.85 and 22.24 ug/dL, respectively. Since the phase-out of leaded gasoline, the mean in urban areas was found to be 5.36 ug/dL and the average in rural areas is expected to be much higher. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) upper limit of blood lead in children under the age of 6 years is 5 ug/dL and the current U.S. average is 1.2 ug/dL. Our results indicate that more than 15% of the population will experience a decrement of more than 5 IQ points from lead exposure. The analysis also leads us to believe that lead is responsible for 820,000 disability-adjusted life-years for lead-induced mild mental retardation for children aged 0 to 4 years. CONCLUSION: Lead continues to threaten the health of millions and remains a significant cause of disability in Mexico. Additional interventions in reducing or managing lead-based ceramic glazes are necessary to protect the public health.

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Shooting with lead-containing ammunition in indoor firing ranges is a known source of lead exposure in adults. Police officers may be at risk of lead intoxication when regular training shooting exercises are yearly mandatory to law enforcement officers. Effects on health must be documented, even when low-level elemental (inorganic) lead exposure is detected. Forty police officers (nineteen cadets and twenty-one instructors) responded to a questionnaire about health, shooting habits, and potential lead exposure before a training curse. Blood samples were collected and analyzed for blood lead level (BLL) before and after a three days training curse. The mean BLL for the instructors' group was 5.5 µg/dL ± 0.6. The mean BLL for the cadets' group before the training was 3.3 µg/dL ± 0.15 and after the training the main BLL was 18.2 µg/d L± 1.5. Samples were analyzed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS). All the participants in the training curse had significantly increased BLL (mean increment about 15 µg/dL) after the three days indoor shooting season. In conclusion, occupational lead exposure in indoor firing ranges is a source of lead exposure in Brazilian police officers, and appears to be a health risk, especially when heavy weapons with lead-containing ammunition are used in indoor environments during the firing training seasons.

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INTRODUCCION: La exposición de las mujeres embarazadas al plomo es un riesgo para la salud perinatal que se puede traducir en alteraciones en el desarrollo cognitivo de los niños y en otros efectos deletéreos para la salud infantil.OBJETIVOS: Determinar los niveles de plomo en sangre de cordón umbilical en recién nacidos de una maternidad pública de La Plata. Estudiar si existe relación entre los niveles de plomo en sangre de cordón umbilical y factores de exposición al plomo de la madre.METODOS: Se realizó un estudio analítico de corte transversal, que incluyó a 167 recién nacidos de una maternidad pública. Se determinó plomo en sangre de cordón umbilical, y se realizó una encuesta sociodemográfica, ambiental y de hábitos nutricionales para buscar la relación entre la presencia de plomo y factores de riesgo de exposición en la madre.RESULTADOS: El 97% de los recién nacidos mostró plombemia en sangre de cordón con niveles menores a 5 Ag/dl, el 3% restante presentó valores de entre 5 y 10 Ag/dl. Los factores de riesgo más frecuentes asociados con la exposición de las madres fueron los siguientes: ser fumadoras pasivas, tener necesidades básicas insatisfechas y vivir cerca de fuentes de exposición, como paradas de colectivo, calles de tierra, talleres mecánicos, vías transitadas o viviendas en reparación o en construcción.CONCLUSIONES: La proporción de valores elevados de plombemia fue muy baja para encontrar correlaciones con los factores de riesgo de exposición en la madre. Aunque los resultados sugieren un bajo riesgo de exposición prenatal al plomo, es necesario continuar con políticas de prevención de la exposición ambiental, ya que se desconoce el valor umbral a partir del cual el plomo produce efectos adversos sobre la salud infantil.

INTRODUCTION: Exposure to lead during pregnancy is a risk for perinatal health that can lead to cognitive development alterations and other deleterious effects con children’s health.OBJECTIVE: To determine cord blood lead levels in newborns of a public hospital in La Plata. To investigate if there is a relationship between cord blood lead levels and exposure risk factors in the mothers.METHODS: This analytical cross-sectional study included 167 newborns of a public maternity. Cord blood samples were analyzed for lead concentration, and pregnant women answered a questionnaire on social, demographic and environmental aspects and nutritional habits, seeking a relationship between cord blood lead level and maternal risk factors for lead exposure. RESULTS: 97% of the newborns had cord blood lead levels lower than 5 Ag/dl, 3% had levels between 5 and 10 Ag/dl. The lead exposure risk factors which appeared most frequently were: being second hand smokers, having basic needs unsatisfied, living near exposure sources like bus stops, dirt roads, mechanical garages, high-traffic roads and houses under construction or repair.CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of high cord blood lead levels was too low to find any correlations with maternal lead exposure rise factors. The results indicated a low risk of prenatal lead exposure. However, it is necessary to continue with preventive environmental policy, because the minimum blood lead level which could produce adverse effects on children health is yet unknown.

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INTRODUCCION: La exposición de las mujeres embarazadas al plomo es un riesgo para la salud perinatal que se puede traducir en alteraciones en el desarrollo cognitivo de los niños y en otros efectos deletéreos para la salud infantil.OBJETIVOS: Determinar los niveles de plomo en sangre de cordón umbilical en recién nacidos de una maternidad pública de La Plata. Estudiar si existe relación entre los niveles de plomo en sangre de cordón umbilical y factores de exposición al plomo de la madre.METODOS: Se realizó un estudio analítico de corte transversal, que incluyó a 167 recién nacidos de una maternidad pública. Se determinó plomo en sangre de cordón umbilical, y se realizó una encuesta sociodemográfica, ambiental y de hábitos nutricionales para buscar la relación entre la presencia de plomo y factores de riesgo de exposición en la madre.RESULTADOS: El 97% de los recién nacidos mostró plombemia en sangre de cordón con niveles menores a 5 Ag/dl, el 3% restante presentó valores de entre 5 y 10 Ag/dl. Los factores de riesgo más frecuentes asociados con la exposición de las madres fueron los siguientes: ser fumadoras pasivas, tener necesidades básicas insatisfechas y vivir cerca de fuentes de exposición, como paradas de colectivo, calles de tierra, talleres mecánicos, vías transitadas o viviendas en reparación o en construcción.CONCLUSIONES: La proporción de valores elevados de plombemia fue muy baja para encontrar correlaciones con los factores de riesgo de exposición en la madre. Aunque los resultados sugieren un bajo riesgo de exposición prenatal al plomo, es necesario continuar con políticas de prevención de la exposición ambiental, ya que se desconoce el valor umbral a partir del cual el plomo produce efectos adversos sobre la salud infantil.

INTRODUCTION: Exposure to lead during pregnancy is a risk for perinatal health that can lead to cognitive development alterations and other deleterious effects con childrens health.OBJECTIVE: To determine cord blood lead levels in newborns of a public hospital in La Plata. To investigate if there is a relationship between cord blood lead levels and exposure risk factors in the mothers.METHODS: This analytical cross-sectional study included 167 newborns of a public maternity. Cord blood samples were analyzed for lead concentration, and pregnant women answered a questionnaire on social, demographic and environmental aspects and nutritional habits, seeking a relationship between cord blood lead level and maternal risk factors for lead exposure. RESULTS: 97% of the newborns had cord blood lead levels lower than 5 Ag/dl, 3% had levels between 5 and 10 Ag/dl. The lead exposure risk factors which appeared most frequently were: being second hand smokers, having basic needs unsatisfied, living near exposure sources like bus stops, dirt roads, mechanical garages, high-traffic roads and houses under construction or repair.CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of high cord blood lead levels was too low to find any correlations with maternal lead exposure rise factors. The results indicated a low risk of prenatal lead exposure. However, it is necessary to continue with preventive environmental policy, because the minimum blood lead level which could produce adverse effects on children health is yet unknown.

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