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Background and Purpose: Prognostic models based on cardiovascular hemodynamic parameters may bring new information for an early assessment of patients with bicuspid aortic valve (BAV), playing a key role in reducing the long-term risk of cardiovascular events. This work quantifies several three-dimensional hemodynamic parameters in different patients with BAV and ranks their relationships with aortic diameter. Materials and Methods: Using 4D-flow CMR data of 74 patients with BAV (49 right-left and 25 right-non-coronary) and 48 healthy volunteers, aortic 3D maps of seventeen 17 different hemodynamic parameters were quantified along the thoracic aorta. Patients with BAV were divided into two morphotype categories, BAV-Non-AAoD (where we include 18 non-dilated patients and 7 root-dilated patients) and BAV-AAoD (where we include the 49 patients with dilatation of the ascending aorta). Differences between volunteers and patients were evaluated using MANOVA with Pillai's trace statistic, Mann-Whitney U test, ROC curves, and minimum redundancy maximum relevance algorithm. Spearman's correlation was used to correlate the dilation with each hemodynamic parameter. Results: The flow eccentricity, backward velocity, velocity angle, regurgitation fraction, circumferential wall shear stress, axial vorticity, and axial circulation allowed to discriminate between volunteers and patients with BAV, even in the absence of dilation. In patients with BAV, the diameter presented a strong correlation (> |+/-0.7|) with the forward velocity and velocity angle, and a good correlation (> |+/-0.5|) with regurgitation fraction, wall shear stress, wall shear stress axial, and vorticity, also for morphotypes and phenotypes, some of them are correlated with the diameter. The velocity angle proved to be an excellent biomarker in the differentiation between volunteers and patients with BAV, BAV morphotypes, and BAV phenotypes, with an area under the curve bigger than 0.90, and higher predictor important scores. Conclusions: Through the application of a novel 3D quantification method, hemodynamic parameters related to flow direction, such as flow eccentricity, velocity angle, and regurgitation fraction, presented the best relationships with a local diameter and effectively differentiated patients with BAV from healthy volunteers.

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PURPOSE: Three-dimensional (3D) quantification of circulation using a Finite Elements methodology. METHODS: We validate our 3D method using an in-silico arch model, for different mesh resolutions, image resolution and noise levels, and we compared this with a currently used 2D method. Finally, we evaluated the application of our methodology in 4D Flow MRI data of ascending aorta of six healthy volunteers, and six bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) patients, three with right and three with left handed flow, at peak systole. The in-vivo data was compared using a Mann-Whitney U-test between volunteers and patients (right and left handed flow). RESULTS: The robustness of our method throughout different image resolutions and noise levels showed subestimation of circulation less than 45 cm2 /s in comparison with the 55cm2 /s generated by the current 2D method. The circulation (mean ± SD) of the healthy volunteer group was 13.83 ± 28.78 cm2 /s, in BAV patients with right-handed flow 724.37 ± 317.53 cm2 /s, and BAV patients with left-handed flow -480.99 ± 387.29 cm2 /s. There were significant differences between healthy volunteers and BAV patients groups (P-value < .01), and also between BAV patients with a right-handed or left-handed helical flow and healthy volunteers (P-value < .01). CONCLUSION: We propose a novel 3D formulation to estimate the circulation in the thoracic aorta, which can be used to assess the differences between normal and diseased hemodynamic from 4D-Flow MRI data. This method also can correctly differentiate between the visually seen right- and left-handed helical flow, which suggests that this approach may have high clinical sensitivity, but requires confirmation in longitudinal studies with a large cohort.

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AIMS: In this study, we will describe a comprehensive haemodynamic analysis and its relationship to the dilation of the aorta in transposition of the great artery (TGA) patients post-arterial switch operation (ASO) and controls using 4D-flow magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using 4D-flow MRI data of 14 TGA young patients and 8 age-matched normal controls obtained with 1.5 T GE-MR scanner, we evaluate 3D maps of 15 different haemodynamics parameters in six regions; three of them in the aortic root and three of them in the ascending aorta (anterior-left, -right, and posterior for both cases) to find its relationship with the aortic arch curvature and root dilation. Differences between controls and patients were evaluated using Mann-Whitney U test, and the relationship with the curvature was accessed by unpaired t-test. For statistical significance, we consider a P-value of 0.05. The aortic arch curvature was significantly different between patients 46.238 ± 5.581 m-1 and controls 41.066 ± 5.323 m-1. Haemodynamic parameters as wall shear stress circumferential (WSS-C), and eccentricity (ECC), were significantly different between TGA patients and controls in both the root and ascending aorta regions. The distribution of forces along the ascending aorta is highly inhomogeneous in TGA patients. We found that the backward velocity (B-VEL), WSS-C, velocity angle (VEL-A), regurgitation fraction (RF), and ECC are highly correlated with the aortic arch curvature and root dilatation. CONCLUSION: We have identified six potential biomarkers (B-VEL, WSS-C, VEL-A, RF, and ECC), which may be helpful for follow-up evaluation and early prediction of aortic root dilatation in this patient population.

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While the clinical gold standard for pressure difference measurements is invasive catheterization, 4D Flow MRI is a promising tool for enabling a non-invasive quantification, by linking highly spatially resolved velocity measurements with pressure differences via the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations. In this work we provide a validation and comparison with phantom and clinical patient data of pressure difference maps estimators. We compare the classical Pressure Poisson Estimator (PPE) and the new Stokes Estimator (STE) against catheter pressure measurements under a variety of stenosis severities and flow intensities. Specifically, we use several 4D Flow data sets of realistic aortic phantoms with different anatomic and hemodynamic severities and two patients with aortic coarctation. The phantom data sets are enriched by subsampling to lower resolutions, modification of the segmentation and addition of synthetic noise, in order to study the sensitivity of the pressure difference estimators to these factors. Overall, the STE method yields more accurate results than the PPE method compared to catheterization data. The superiority of the STE becomes more evident at increasing Reynolds numbers with a better capacity of capturing pressure gradients in strongly convective flow regimes. The results indicate an improved robustness of the STE method with respect to variation in lumen segmentation. However, with heuristic removal of the wall-voxels, the PPE can reach a comparable accuracy for lower Reynolds' numbers.

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BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Extracranial-to-intracranial (EC-IC) surgical bypass improves cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebrovascular vasoreactivity (CVR) for patients with carotid occlusion. Bypass graft patency and contribution of the graft to the postoperative increase in CVR are challenging to assess. To assess the effectiveness of 4D flow magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to evaluate bypass graft patency and flow augmentation through the superficial temporal artery (STA) before and after EC-IC bypass. METHODS: Three consecutive patients undergoing EC-IC bypass for carotid occlusion were evaluated pre- and postoperatively using CVR testing with pre- and poststimulus 4D flow-MRI for assessment of the bypass graft and intracranial vasculature. RESULTS: Preoperatively, 2 patients (patients 1 and 3) did not augment flow through either native STA. The third, who had evidence of extensive native EC-IC collateralization on digital subtraction angiography (DSA), did augment flow through the STA preoperatively (CVR = 1). Postoperatively, all patients demonstrated CVR > 1 on the side of bypass. The patient who had CVR > 1 preoperatively demonstrated the greatest increase in resting postoperative graft flow (from 40 to 130 mL/minute), but the smallest CVR, with a poststimulus graft flow of 160 mL/minute (CVR = 1.2). The 2 patients who did not demonstrate augmentation of graft flow preoperatively augmented postoperatively from 10 to 20 mL/minute (CVR = 2.0) and 10-80 mL/minute (CVR = 8.0), respectively. Intracranial flow was simultaneously interrogated. Two patients demonstrated mild reductions in resting flow velocities in all interrogated vessels immediately following bypass. The patient who underwent CVR testing on postoperative day 48 demonstrated a stable or increased flow rate in most intracranial vessels. CONCLUSION: Four-dimensional flow MRI allows for noninvasive, simultaneous interrogation of the intra- and extracranial arterial vasculature during CVR testing, and reveals unique paradigms in cerebrovascular physiology. Observing these flow patterns may aid in improved patient selection and more detailed postoperative evaluation for patients undergoing EC-IC bypass.

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PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Four-dimensional (4D)-Flow cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) is three-dimensional, time-resolved, three-directional velocity-encoded magnetic resonance that provides flow velocity data within a volumetric region across the cardiac cycle (CC). The goals of this paper are to review the current clinical applications of this technique; provide an overview of the general physics; discuss key points from the expert consensus document; and present recent advances in the field. The advantages and disadvantages of 4D-Flow CMR in comparison with the standard and gold standard methods are summarized. RECENT FINDINGS: 4D-Flow CMR offers unique insights into cardiac and circulatory physiology with an ability to quantify advanced hemodynamic parameters in a variety of pathologic entities including aortic and pulmonary artery diseases, valvular heart disease, complex congenital heart disease, and extra-thoracic cardiovascular diseases. Recent large cohort studies highlight how it provides information that has clinical impact beyond a better understanding of the disease and that will permit better and more timely management and prognosis. 4D-Flow CMR provides unique qualitative and quantitative flow dynamics information and its impact on cardiac chambers, vessel walls, and myocardium. As scan acquisition and post-processing of 4D-Flow CMR become faster and simpler, the investigational and clinical opportunities will expand dramatically.

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PURPOSE: To decompose the 3D wall shear stress (WSS) vector field into its axial (WSSA ) and circumferential (WSSC ) components using a Laplacian finite element approach. METHODS: We validated our method with in silico experiments involving different geometries and a modified Poiseuille flow. We computed 3D maps of the WSS, WSSA , and WSSC using 4D flow MRI data obtained from 10 volunteers and 10 patients with bicuspid aortic valve (BAV). We compared our method with the centerline method. The mean value, standard deviation, root mean-squared error, and Wilcoxon signed rank test are reported. RESULTS: We obtained an error <0.05% processing analytical geometries. We found good agreement between our method and the modified Poiseuille flow for the WSS, WSSA , and WSSC . We found statistically significance differences between our method and a 3D centerline method. In BAV patients, we found a 220% significant increase in the WSSC in the ascending aorta with respect to volunteers. CONCLUSION: We developed a novel methodology to decompose the WSS vector in WSSA and WSSC in 3D domains, using 4D flow MRI data. Our method provides a more robust quantification of WSSA and WSSC in comparison with other reported methods. Magn Reson Med 79:2816-2823, 2018. © 2017 International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine.

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PURPOSE: To assess the variability of peak flow, mean velocity, stroke volume, and wall shear stress measurements derived from 3D cine phase contrast (4D flow) sequences under different conditions of spatial and temporal resolutions. METHODS: We performed controlled experiments using a thoracic aortic phantom. The phantom was connected to a pulsatile flow pump, which simulated nine physiological conditions. For each condition, 4D flow data were acquired with different spatial and temporal resolutions. The 2D cine phase contrast and 4D flow data with the highest available spatio-temporal resolution were considered as a reference for comparison purposes. RESULTS: When comparing 4D flow acquisitions (spatial and temporal resolution of 2.0 × 2.0 × 2.0 mm3 and 40 ms, respectively) with 2D phase-contrast flow acquisitions, the underestimation of peak flow, mean velocity, and stroke volume were 10.5, 10 and 5%, respectively. However, the calculated wall shear stress showed an underestimation larger than 70% for the former acquisition, with respect to 4D flow, with spatial and temporal resolution of 1.0 × 1.0 × 1.0 mm3 and 20 ms, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Peak flow, mean velocity, and stroke volume from 4D flow data are more sensitive to changes of temporal than spatial resolution, as opposed to wall shear stress, which is more sensitive to changes in spatial resolution. Magn Reson Med 79:1882-1892, 2018. © 2017 International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine.

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Objective. To validate the utility of 4D Blood Flow and Navier-Stokes equations to create relative pressure (RP) maps in the aorta and pulmonary artery (PA) in healthy volunteers and patients with repaired tetralogy of Fallot (TOF). Methods. A 4D flow sequence of whole heart and its major vessels was acquired in 10 healthy volunteers and 6 patients with repaired TOF. The root of the ascending aorta was used as the reference point to calculate RP along five different points of this area. In addition, relative pressure of both right and left PA was measured as correlated to absolute pressure. Results. Patients with repaired TOF showed greater pulmonary artery (PA) relative pressure differences between maximum and minimum values when compared to volunteers (p <0.05). Additionally, aortic relative pressures had an excellent correlation with published data, whether using 4D flow or by catheterization. Conclusions. 4D Flow MRI may represent a new non-invasive and non operator-dependent diagnostic tool in CV disease management.

Objetivo. Utilizar 4D Flow y las ecuaciones de Navier-Stokes para obtener mapas de presiones relativas (PR) en la Aorta y Arteria Pulmonar (AP) de voluntarios y pacientes con Tetralogía de Fallot reparada (TOFr). Métodos. En 10 voluntarios y 6 pacientes con TOFr se adquirió la secuencia 4D flow del corazón y sus principales vasos. La raíz de la Aorta Ascendente se utilizó como referencia para calcular las PR a esta zona en cinco puntos distintos. Además, se midió la PR de la AP derecha e izquierda respecto a la AP. Resultados. Los pacientes con TOFr tuvieron diferencias de PR entre los valores máximos y mínimos más grandes que los voluntarios en la AP (p<0,05). Adicionalmente, las PR de la aorta tuvieron una excelente correlación con datos publicados utilizando 4D flow y mediante cateterización. Conclusiones. 4D Flow podría constituir una nueva herramienta diagnóstica, no invasiva, ni operador dependiente, en el manejo de patologías CV.

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Objective: Hemodynamic parameters are critical to perform a proper diagnosis. However, due to the large number of variables that can be obtained, overall analysis may represent a complex task. To facilitate this, we propose to create a model for classifying different hemodynamic variables between those belonging to a healthy individual and to a pathological patient. For this purpose, we employed data mining techniques to identify relationships among various aortic hemodynamic parameters obtained through multi-dimensional (4D flow) MR imaging. Method: A 4D flow sequence of whole heart and great vessels was acquired using MRI in 19 healthy volunteers and 2 patients (one with aortic coarctation and one with repaired coarctation of the aorta). Retrospectively, data were reformatted along the aorta; three MRI acquisitions were performed for volunteers and 30 sequences for each patient. In each slice the aorta was segmented and various parameters were quantified: area, maximum velocity, minimum velocity, flow and volumen, with following values being calculated for last four parameters: maximum, average, standard deviation, kurtosis, skewness, proportion of time to reach the maximum value, among others. A total of 26 variables for each acquisition were obtained. In order to classify data, the CART Technique (Classification and Regression Trees) was applied. To validate the model, two extra projections were generated per each volunteer and 20 slice per each patient. Results: By using only 7 variables, the CART Technique allows discrimination between images performed either on volunteers or patients with an error rate of 14.1 percent, a sensitivity of 82.5 percent, and a specificity of 89.4 percent. Conclusions: 4D flow MR imaging provides a wealth of hemodynamic data that can be difficult to analyze. In this paper we demonstrate that by using data mining techniques it is possible to classify images from relevant hemodynamic parameters and their relationships in order...

Objetivo: Los parámetros hemodinámicos son de gran utilidad para realizar un adecuado diagnóstico. Sin embargo, debido a la gran cantidad de variables que pueden obtenerse, el análisis global de todas ellas puede ser complejo. Para facilitar esta tarea, nosotros proponemos crear un modelo que permita clasificar distintas variables hemodinámicas entre las pertenecientes a un individuo sano o a uno patológico. Para ello, usaremos técnicas de minería de datos que permitan identificar y encontrar relaciones entre distintos parámetros hemodinámicos de la aorta obtenidos a través de flujo multidimensional (4D flow) por resonancia magnética. Método: Una secuencia 4D flow de todo el corazón y los grandes vasos fue adquirida utilizando resonancia magnética en 19 voluntarios sanos y 2 pacientes (uno con una coartación aórtica y otro con una coartación aórtica reparada). Retrospectivamente, los datos fueron reformateados a lo largo de la aorta, originándose 3 cortes en los voluntarios y 30 cortes en cada paciente. En cada corte la aorta fue segmentada y distintos parámetros fueron cuantificados: área, velocidad máxima, velocidad mínima, flujo y volumen, calculándose en los cuatro últimos su valor máximo, promedio, desviación estándar, curtosis, sesgo, proporción de tiempo en alcanzar el valor máximo, entre otros. Teniendo un total de 26 variables por cada corte. Se aplicó la técnica de árboles de decisión tipo CART (por sus siglas en inglés) para clasificar los datos. Para validar el modelo, 2 cortes extras fueron generados por cada voluntario y 20 cortes por cada paciente. Resultados: La técnica CART, mediante la utilización de sólo 7 variables, puede clasificar las imágenes de los voluntarios y pacientes con una tasa de error del 14,1 por ciento, una sensibilidad de 82,5 por ciento y una especificidad de 89.4 por ciento. Conclusiones: 4D flow provee una gran cantidad de datos hemodinámicos que son difíciles de analizar. En este trabajo demostramos que al utilizar...

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Purpose. To demonstrate the utility of 4D flow MR imaging for analyzing blood flow patterns and flow distribution in patients with congenital heart diseases. Methods: Six patients with congenital heart diseases were scanned using a standard cardiac MRI protocol, according to their condition. Additionally, 2D flow sequences of the great vessels, and a 4D flow sequence covering the entire heart were acquired. Flow patterns were visualized by using vector fields, streamlines and particle traces. Results: 4D flow technique depicted vortices and helical flow in the pulmonary artery of most patients, as well as in the aorta and superior vena cava of one patient with corrected aortic coarctation and a levoatrial cardinal vein. Conclusion: 4D flow MR imaging enables the identification of flow patterns difficult to detect with other diagnostic modalities. Comprehensive evaluation of flow patterns might help to understand the hemodynamic consequences of congenital heart diseases and their surgical procedures.

Objetivo. Demostrar la utilidad de 4D flow para el análisis de patrones y distribución de flujos en pacientes con cardiopatías congénitas. Métodos: Seis pacientes con cardiopatías congénitas fueron escaneados con un protocolo de resonancia magnética cardíaca estándar. Además se incluyeron secuencias de flujo 2D en los principales vasos del tórax y una secuencia 4D flow que cubría todo el corazón. Para la visualización de los patrones de flujo se emplearon vectores de velocidad, líneas de flujo y trazadores de partículas. Resultados: 4D flow reveló vórtices y hélices en la arteria pulmonar de la mayoría de los pacientes, y en la aorta y vena cava superior de un paciente con coartación aórtica reparada y vena cardinal levoatrial. Conclusiones: 4D flow permite identificar patrones de flujo en pacientes con cardiopatías congénitas, difíciles de observar con otros métodos diagnósticos. La evaluación de patrones de flujo podría contribuir a comprender las consecuencias hemodinámicas de diferentes cardiopatías congénitas.

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