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The mitotic inheritability of DNA methylation as an epigenetic marker in higher-order eukaryotes has been established for >40 years. The DNA methylome and mitotic division interplay is now considered bidirectional and highly intertwined. Various epigenetic writers, erasers, and modulators shape the perceived replicative methylation dynamics. This Review surveys the principles and complexity of mitotic transmission of DNA methylation, emphasizing the awareness of mitotic aging in analyzing DNA methylation dynamics in development and disease. We reviewed how DNA methylation changes alter mitotic proliferation capacity, implicating age-related diseases like cancer. We link replicative epimutation to stem cell dysfunction, inflammatory response, cancer risks, and epigenetic clocks, discussing the causative role of DNA methylation in health and disease.
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BACKGROUND: The effect of vaccination on the epigenome remains poorly characterized. In previous research, we identified an association between seroprotection against influenza and DNA methylation at sites associated with the RIG-1 signaling pathway, which recognizes viral double-stranded RNA and leads to a type I interferon response. However, these studies did not fully account for confounding factors including age, gender, and BMI, along with changes in cell-type composition. RESULTS: Here, we studied the influenza vaccine response in a longitudinal cohort vaccinated over two consecutive years (2019-2020 and 2020-2021), using peripheral blood mononuclear cells and a targeted DNA methylation approach. To address the effects of multiple factors on the epigenome, we designed a multivariate multiple regression model that included seroprotection levels as quantified by the hemagglutination-inhibition (HAI) assay test. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that 179 methylation sites can be combined as potential signatures to predict seroprotection. These sites were not only enriched for genes involved in the regulation of the RIG-I signaling pathway, as found previously, but also enriched for other genes associated with innate immunity to viruses and the transcription factor binding sites of BRD4, which is known to impact T cell memory. We propose a model to suggest that the RIG-I pathway and BRD4 could potentially be modulated to improve immunization strategies.
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Metilação de DNA , Imunidade Inata , Vacinas contra Influenza , Influenza Humana , Humanos , Metilação de DNA/genética , Metilação de DNA/efeitos dos fármacos , Vacinas contra Influenza/imunologia , Vacinas contra Influenza/administração & dosagem , Imunidade Inata/genética , Feminino , Masculino , Influenza Humana/prevenção & controle , Influenza Humana/imunologia , Influenza Humana/genética , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Adulto , Transdução de Sinais , Linfócitos T/imunologia , Estudos Longitudinais , Epigênese Genética , Vacinação , Proteína DEAD-box 58/genética , Proteína DEAD-box 58/imunologia , Leucócitos Mononucleares/imunologia , Leucócitos Mononucleares/metabolismoRESUMO
DNA methylation (DNAm) is one of the most reliable biomarkers of aging across mammalian tissues. While the age-dependent global loss of DNAm has been well characterized, DNAm gain is less characterized. Studies have demonstrated that CpGs which gain methylation with age are enriched in Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) targets. However, whole-genome examination of all PRC2 targets as well as determination of the pan-tissue or tissue-specific nature of these associations is lacking. Here, we show that low-methylated regions (LMRs) which are highly bound by PRC2 in embryonic stem cells (PRC2 LMRs) gain methylation with age in all examined somatic mitotic cells. We estimated that this epigenetic change represents around 90% of the age-dependent DNAm gain genome-wide. Therefore, we propose the "PRC2-AgeIndex," defined as the average DNAm in PRC2 LMRs, as a universal biomarker of cellular aging in somatic cells which can distinguish the effect of different anti-aging interventions.
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Envelhecimento , Biomarcadores , Metilação de DNA , Epigênese Genética , Complexo Repressor Polycomb 2 , Rejuvenescimento , Animais , Envelhecimento/metabolismo , Envelhecimento/genética , Complexo Repressor Polycomb 2/metabolismo , Complexo Repressor Polycomb 2/genética , Rejuvenescimento/fisiologia , Biomarcadores/metabolismo , Humanos , Camundongos , Senescência Celular/genética , Ilhas de CpG , Células-Tronco Embrionárias/metabolismo , Masculino , FemininoRESUMO
MOTIVATION: Infinium DNA methylation BeadChips are widely used for genome-wide DNA methylation profiling at the population scale. Recent updates to probe content and naming conventions in the EPIC version 2 (EPICv2) arrays have complicated integrating new data with previous Infinium array platforms, such as the MethylationEPIC (EPIC) and the HumanMethylation450 (HM450) BeadChip. RESULTS: We present mLiftOver, a user-friendly tool that harmonizes probe ID, methylation level, and signal intensity data across different Infinium platforms. It manages probe replicates, missing data imputation, and platform-specific bias for accurate data conversion. We validated the tool by applying HM450-based cancer classifiers to EPICv2 cancer data, achieving high accuracy. Additionally, we successfully integrated EPICv2 healthy tissue data with legacy HM450 data for tissue identity analysis and produced consistent copy number profiles in cancer cells. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: mLiftOver is implemented R and available in the Bioconductor package SeSAMe (version 1.21.13+): https://bioconductor.org/packages/release/bioc/html/sesame.html. Analysis of EPIC and EPICv2 platform-specific bias and high-confidence mapping is available at https://github.com/zhou-lab/InfiniumAnnotationV1/raw/main/Anno/EPICv2/EPICv2ToEPIC_conversion.tsv.gz. The source code is available at https://github.com/zwdzwd/sesame/blob/devel/R/mLiftOver.R under the MIT license.
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Metilação de DNA , Software , Humanos , Neoplasias/genética , Neoplasias/metabolismo , Análise de Sequência com Séries de Oligonucleotídeos/métodos , Genoma HumanoRESUMO
TET1/2/3 dioxygenases iteratively demethylate 5-methylcytosine, beginning with the formation of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC). The post-mitotic brain maintains higher levels of 5hmC than most peripheral tissues, and TET1 ablation studies have underscored the critical role of TET1 in brain physiology. However, deletion of Tet1 precludes the disentangling of the catalytic and non-catalytic functions of TET1. Here, we dissect these functions of TET1 by comparing adult cortex of Tet1 wildtype (Tet1 WT), a novel Tet1 catalytically dead mutant (Tet1 HxD), and Tet1 knockout (Tet1 KO) mice. Using DNA methylation array, we uncover that Tet1 HxD and KO mutations perturb the methylation status of distinct subsets of CpG sites. Gene ontology (GO) analysis on specific differential 5hmC regions indicates that TET1's catalytic activity is linked to neuronal-specific functions. RNA-Seq further shows that Tet1 mutations predominantly impact the genes that are associated with alternative splicing. Lastly, we performed High-performance Liquid Chromatography Mass-Spectrometry lipidomics on WT and mutant cortices and uncover accumulation of lysophospholipids lysophosphatidylethanolamine and lysophosphatidylcholine in Tet1 HxD cortex. In summary, we show that Tet1 HxD does not completely phenocopy Tet1 KO, providing evidence that TET1 modulates distinct cortical functions through its catalytic and non-catalytic roles.
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5-Metilcitosina , Córtex Cerebral , Metilação de DNA , Proteínas Proto-Oncogênicas , Animais , Camundongos , Proteínas Proto-Oncogênicas/genética , Proteínas Proto-Oncogênicas/metabolismo , 5-Metilcitosina/metabolismo , 5-Metilcitosina/análogos & derivados , Córtex Cerebral/metabolismo , Camundongos Knockout , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/metabolismo , Ilhas de CpG , MutaçãoRESUMO
Background: The effect of vaccination on the epigenome remains poorly characterized. In previous research, we identified an association between seroprotection against influenza and DNA methylation at sites associated with the RIG-1 signaling pathway, which recognizes viral double-stranded RNA and leads to a type I interferon response. However, these studies did not fully account for confounding factors including age, gender, and BMI, along with changes in cell type composition. Results: Here, we studied the influenza vaccine response in a longitudinal cohort vaccinated over two consecutive years (2019-2020 and 2020-2021), using peripheral blood mononuclear cells and a targeted DNA methylation approach. To address the effects of multiple factors on the epigenome, we designed a multivariate multiple regression model that included seroprotection levels as quantified by the hemagglutination-inhibition (HAI) assay test. Conclusions: Our findings indicate that 179 methylation sites can be combined as potential signatures to predict seroprotection. These sites were not only enriched for genes involved in the regulation of the RIG-I signaling pathway, as found previously, but also enriched for other genes associated with innate immunity to viruses and the transcription factor binding sites of BRD4, which is known to impact T cell memory. We propose a model to suggest that the RIG-I pathway and BRD4 could potentially be modulated to improve immunization strategies.
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The Infinium DNA Methylation BeadChips have significantly contributed to population-scale epigenetics research by enabling epigenome-wide trait association discoveries. Here, we design, describe, and experimentally verify a new iteration of this technology, the Methylation Screening Array (MSA), to focus on human trait screening and discovery. This array utilizes extensive data from previous Infinium platform-based epigenome-wide association studies (EWAS). It incorporates knowledge from the latest single-cell and cell type-resolution whole genome methylome profiles. The MSA is engineered to achieve scalable screening of epigenetics-trait association in an ultra-high sample throughput. Our design encompassed diverse human trait associations, including those with genetic, cellular, environmental, and demographical variables and human diseases such as genetic, neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, infectious, and immune diseases. We comprehensively evaluated this array's reproducibility, accuracy, and capacity for cell-type deconvolution and supporting 5-hydroxymethylation profiling in diverse human tissues. Our first atlas data using this platform uncovered the complex chromatin and tissue contexts of DNA modification variations and genetic variants linked to human phenotypes.
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BACKGROUNDThe molecular signature of pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is poorly described, and the degree to which hyperinflammation or specific tissue injury contributes to outcomes is unknown. Therefore, we profiled inflammation and tissue injury dynamics over the first 7 days of ARDS, and associated specific biomarkers with mortality, persistent ARDS, and persistent multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS).METHODSIn a single-center prospective cohort of intubated pediatric patients with ARDS, we collected plasma on days 0, 3, and 7. Nineteen biomarkers reflecting inflammation, tissue injury, and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) were measured. We assessed the relationship between biomarkers and trajectories with mortality, persistent ARDS, or persistent MODS using multivariable mixed effect models.RESULTSIn 279 patients (64 [23%] nonsurvivors), hyperinflammatory cytokines, tissue injury markers, and DAMPs were higher in nonsurvivors. Survivors and nonsurvivors showed different biomarker trajectories. IL-1α, soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor 1, angiopoietin 2 (ANG2), and surfactant protein D increased in nonsurvivors, while DAMPs remained persistently elevated. ANG2 and procollagen type III N-terminal peptide were associated with persistent ARDS, whereas multiple cytokines, tissue injury markers, and DAMPs were associated with persistent MODS. Corticosteroid use did not impact the association of biomarker levels or trajectory with mortality.CONCLUSIONSPediatric ARDS survivors and nonsurvivors had distinct biomarker trajectories, with cytokines, endothelial and alveolar epithelial injury, and DAMPs elevated in nonsurvivors. Mortality markers overlapped with markers associated with persistent MODS, rather than persistent ARDS.FUNDINGNIH (K23HL-136688, R01-HL148054).
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Biomarcadores , Inflamação , Síndrome do Desconforto Respiratório , Humanos , Biomarcadores/sangue , Biomarcadores/metabolismo , Masculino , Feminino , Criança , Pré-Escolar , Síndrome do Desconforto Respiratório/sangue , Síndrome do Desconforto Respiratório/mortalidade , Lactente , Inflamação/sangue , Estudos Prospectivos , Adolescente , Insuficiência de Múltiplos Órgãos/sangue , Insuficiência de Múltiplos Órgãos/mortalidade , Citocinas/sangueRESUMO
The Infinium BeadChip is the most widely used DNA methylome assay technology for population-scale epigenome profiling. However, the standard workflow requires over 200 ng of input DNA, hindering its application to small cell-number samples, such as primordial germ cells. We developed experimental and analysis workflows to extend this technology to suboptimal input DNA conditions, including ultra-low input down to single cells. DNA preamplification significantly enhanced detection rates to over 50% in five-cell samples and â¼25% in single cells. Enzymatic conversion also substantially improved data quality. Computationally, we developed a method to model the background signal's influence on the DNA methylation level readings. The modified detection P-value calculation achieved higher sensitivities for low-input datasets and was validated in over 100 000 public diverse methylome profiles. We employed the optimized workflow to query the demethylation dynamics in mouse primordial germ cells available at low cell numbers. Our data revealed nuanced chromatin states, sex disparities, and the role of DNA methylation in transposable element regulation during germ cell development. Collectively, we present comprehensive experimental and computational solutions to extend this widely used methylation assay technology to applications with limited DNA.
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Metilação de DNA , Análise de Célula Única , Animais , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Camundongos , Ilhas de CpG , DNA/genética , DNA/metabolismo , Epigenômica/métodos , Células Germinativas/metabolismo , Análise de Sequência com Séries de Oligonucleotídeos/métodos , Análise de Célula Única/métodosRESUMO
The RING E3 ubiquitin ligase UHRF1 is an established cofactor for DNA methylation inheritance. Nucleosomal engagement through histone and DNA interactions directs UHRF1 ubiquitin ligase activity toward lysines on histone H3 tails, creating binding sites for DNMT1 through ubiquitin interacting motifs (UIM1 and UIM2). Here, we profile contributions of UHRF1 and DNMT1 to genome-wide DNA methylation inheritance and dissect specific roles for ubiquitin signaling in this process. We reveal DNA methylation maintenance at low-density CpGs is vulnerable to disruption of UHRF1 ubiquitin ligase activity and DNMT1 ubiquitin reading activity through UIM1. Hypomethylation of low-density CpGs in this manner induces formation of partially methylated domains (PMD), a methylation signature observed across human cancers. Furthermore, disrupting DNMT1 UIM2 function abolishes DNA methylation maintenance. Collectively, we show DNMT1-dependent DNA methylation inheritance is a ubiquitin-regulated process and suggest a disrupted UHRF1-DNMT1 ubiquitin signaling axis contributes to the development of PMDs in human cancers.
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Oxford Nanopore sequencing can detect DNA methylations from ionic current signal of single molecules, offering a unique advantage over conventional methods. Additionally, adaptive sampling, a software-controlled enrichment method for targeted sequencing, allows reduced representation methylation sequencing that can be applied to CpG islands or imprinted regions. Here we present DeepMod2, a comprehensive deep-learning framework for methylation detection using ionic current signal from Nanopore sequencing. DeepMod2 implements both a bidirectional long short-term memory (BiLSTM) model and a Transformer model and can analyze POD5 and FAST5 signal files generated on R9 and R10 flowcells. Additionally, DeepMod2 can run efficiently on central processing unit (CPU) through model pruning and can infer epihaplotypes or haplotype-specific methylation calls from phased reads. We use multiple publicly available and newly generated datasets to evaluate the performance of DeepMod2 under varying scenarios. DeepMod2 has comparable performance to Guppy and Dorado, which are the current state-of-the-art methods from Oxford Nanopore Technologies that remain closed-source. Moreover, we show a high correlation (r = 0.96) between reduced representation and whole-genome Nanopore sequencing. In summary, DeepMod2 is an open-source tool that enables fast and accurate DNA methylation detection from whole-genome or adaptive sequencing data on a diverse range of flowcell types.
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Aprendizado Profundo , Sequenciamento por Nanoporos , Nanoporos , Análise de Sequência de DNA/métodos , Sequenciamento de Nucleotídeos em Larga Escala/métodos , Metilação de DNARESUMO
Data from both bulk and single-cell whole-genome DNA methylation experiments are under-utilized in many ways. This is attributable to inefficient mapping of methylation sequencing reads, routinely discarded genetic information, and neglected read-level epigenetic and genetic linkage information. We introduce the BISulfite-seq Command line User Interface Toolkit (BISCUIT) and its companion R/Bioconductor package, biscuiteer, for simultaneous extraction of genetic and epigenetic information from bulk and single-cell DNA methylation sequencing. BISCUIT's performance, flexibility and standards-compliant output allow large, complex experimental designs to be characterized on clinical timescales. BISCUIT is particularly suited for processing data from single-cell DNA methylation assays, with its excellent scalability, efficiency, and ability to greatly enhance mappability, a key challenge for single-cell studies. We also introduce the epiBED format for single-molecule analysis of coupled epigenetic and genetic information, facilitating the study of cellular and tissue heterogeneity from DNA methylation sequencing.
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Metilação de DNA , Epigênese Genética , Sequenciamento de Nucleotídeos em Larga Escala , Software , Epigenômica , Análise de Sequência de DNA , SulfitosRESUMO
Background: Differentially methylated imprint control regions (ICRs) regulate the monoallelic expression of imprinted genes. Their epigenetic dysregulation by environmental exposures throughout life results in the formation of common chronic diseases. Unfortunately, existing Infinium methylation arrays lack the ability to profile these regions adequately. Whole genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS) is the unique method able to profile these regions, but it is very expensive and it requires not only a high coverage but it is also computationally intensive to assess those regions. Findings: To address this deficiency, we developed a custom methylation array containing 22,819 probes. Among them, 9,757 probes map to 1,088 out of the 1,488 candidate ICRs recently described. To assess the performance of the array, we created matched samples processed with the Human Imprintome array and WGBS, which is the current standard method for assessing the methylation of the Human Imprintome. We compared the methylation levels from the shared CpG sites and obtained a mean R 2 = 0.569. We also created matched samples processed with the Human Imprintome array and the Infinium Methylation EPIC v2 array and obtained a mean R 2 = 0.796. Furthermore, replication experiments demonstrated high reliability (ICC: 0.799-0.945). Conclusions: Our custom array will be useful for replicable and accurate assessment, mechanistic insight, and targeted investigation of ICRs. This tool should accelerate the discovery of ICRs associated with a wide range of diseases and exposures, and advance our understanding of genomic imprinting and its relevance in development and disease formation throughout the life course.
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SUMMARY: In whole genome sequencing data, polymerase chain reaction amplification results in duplicate DNA fragments coming from the same location in the genome. The process of preparing a whole genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS) library, on the other hand, can create two DNA fragments from the same location that should not be considered duplicates. Currently, only one WGBS-aware duplicate marking tool exists. However, it only works with the output from a single tool, does not accept streaming input or output, and requires a substantial amount of memory relative to the input size. Dupsifter provides an aligner-agnostic duplicate marking tool that is lightweight, has streaming capabilities, and is memory efficient. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: Source code and binaries are freely available at https://github.com/huishenlab/dupsifter under the MIT license. Dupsifter is implemented in C and is supported on macOS and Linux.
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Metilação de DNA , Sulfitos , Sequenciamento Completo do Genoma/métodos , Análise de Sequência de DNA/métodos , Software , DNA/genéticaRESUMO
The Infinium BeadChip is the most widely used DNA methylome assay technology for population-scale epigenome profiling. However, the standard workflow requires over 200 ng of input DNA, hindering its application to small cell-number samples, such as primordial germ cells. We developed experimental and analysis workflows to extend this technology to suboptimal input DNA conditions, including ultra-low input down to single cells. DNA preamplification significantly enhanced detection rates to over 50% in five-cell samples and â¼25% in single cells. Enzymatic conversion also substantially improved data quality. Computationally, we developed a method to model the background signal's influence on the DNA methylation level readings. The modified detection p -values calculation achieved higher sensitivities for low-input datasets and was validated in over 100,000 public datasets with diverse methylation profiles. We employed the optimized workflow to query the demethylation dynamics in mouse primordial germ cells available at low cell numbers. Our data revealed nuanced chromatin states, sex disparities, and the role of DNA methylation in transposable element regulation during germ cell development. Collectively, we present comprehensive experimental and computational solutions to extend this widely used methylation assay technology to applications with limited DNA.
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The arrival of the Infinium DNA methylation BeadChips for mice and other nonhuman mammalian species has outpaced the development of the informatics that supports their use for epigenetics study in model organisms. Here, we present informatics infrastructure and methods to allow easy DNA methylation analysis on multiple species, including domesticated animals and inbred laboratory mice (in SeSAMe version 1.16.0+). First, we developed a data-driven analysis pipeline covering species inference, genome-specific data preprocessing and regression modeling. We targeted genomes of 310 species and 37 inbred mouse strains and showed that genome-specific preprocessing prevents artifacts and yields more accurate measurements than generic pipelines. Second, we uncovered the dynamics of the epigenome evolution in different genomic territories and tissue types through comparative analysis. We identified a catalog of inbred mouse strain-specific methylation differences, some of which are linked to the strains' immune, metabolic and neurological phenotypes. By streamlining DNA methylation array analysis for undesigned genomes, our methods extend epigenome research to broad species contexts.
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Metilação de DNA , Epigenoma , Camundongos , Animais , Análise de Sequência com Séries de Oligonucleotídeos/métodos , Ilhas de CpG , Genoma , Epigênese Genética , Mamíferos/genéticaRESUMO
Dissecting intercellular epigenetic differences is key to understanding tissue heterogeneity. Recent advances in single-cell DNA methylome profiling have presented opportunities to resolve this heterogeneity at the maximum resolution. While these advances enable us to explore frontiers of chromatin biology and better understand cell lineage relationships, they pose new challenges in data processing and interpretation. This review surveys the current state of computational tools developed for single-cell DNA methylome data analysis. We discuss critical components of single-cell DNA methylome data analysis, including data preprocessing, quality control, imputation, dimensionality reduction, cell clustering, supervised cell annotation, cell lineage reconstruction, gene activity scoring, and integration with transcriptome data. We also highlight unique aspects of single-cell DNA methylome data analysis and discuss how techniques common to other single-cell omics data analyses can be adapted to analyze DNA methylomes. Finally, we discuss existing challenges and opportunities for future development.
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Metilação de DNA , Epigenoma , Perfilação da Expressão Gênica/métodos , Epigênese Genética , Transcriptoma , Análise de Célula Única/métodos , Biologia Computacional/métodos , Epigenômica/métodosRESUMO
Python has emerged as a robust programming language increasingly employed in genomics data analysis, largely due to its comprehensive deep learning libraries and proficiency in handling large-scale data, such as single-cell multi-omics datasets. Although Python has become a prominent data science ecosystem for bioinformatics, there remains a growing demand for advanced heatmap visualization and assembly tools, which are not sufficiently addressed by existing Python-based data visualization libraries. We present PyComplexHeatmap, an all-inclusive Python library for heatmap visualization, inspired by the ComplexHeatmap package currently available in R. PyComplexHeatmap is built upon the matplotlib library and features a versatile, modular interface that seamlessly integrates with other Python-based data science tools, such as Pandas, NumPy, and genomics tools, such as Scanpy, in a standard-compliant manner. This library caters to the requirements of exquisite rendering of multimodal matrix data, incorporating both textual and graphical annotations, thereby enabling efficient integrative analysis of multimodal data and associated metadata.
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Infinium Methylation BeadChips are widely used to profile DNA cytosine modifications in large cohort studies for reasons of cost-effectiveness, accurate quantification, and user-friendly data analysis in characterizing these canonical epigenetic marks. In this work, we conducted a comprehensive evaluation of the updated Infinium MethylationEPIC v2 BeadChip (EPICv2). Our evaluation revealed that EPICv2 offers significant improvements over its predecessors, including expanded enhancer coverage, applicability to diverse ancestry groups, support for low-input DNA down to one nanogram, coverage of existing epigenetic clocks, cell type deconvolution panels, and human trait associations, while maintaining accuracy and reproducibility. Using EPICv2, we were able to identify epigenome and sequence signatures in cell line models of DNMT and SETD2 loss and/or hypomorphism. Furthermore, we provided probe-wise evaluation and annotation to facilitate the use of new features on this array for studying the interplay between somatic mutations and epigenetic landscape in cancer genomics. In conclusion, EPICv2 provides researchers with a valuable tool for studying epigenetic modifications and their role in development and disease.
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We report the inverse association between the expression of androgen receptor (AR) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1ß) in a cohort of patients with metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). We also discovered that AR represses the IL-1ß gene by binding an androgen response element (ARE) half-site located within the promoter, which explains the IL-1ß expression in AR-negative (ARNEG) cancer cells. Consistently, androgen-depletion or AR-pathway inhibitors (ARIs) de-repressed IL-1ß in ARPOS cancer cells, both in vitro and in vivo. The AR transcriptional repression is sustained by histone de-acetylation at the H3K27 mark in the IL-1ß promoter. Notably, patients' data suggest that DNA methylation prevents IL-1ß expression, even if the AR-signaling axis is inactive. Our previous studies show that secreted IL-1ß supports metastatic progression in mice by altering the transcriptome of tumor-associated bone stroma. Thus, in prostate cancer patients harboring ARNEG tumor cells or treated with ADT/ARIs, and with the IL-1ß gene unmethylated, IL-1ß could condition the metastatic microenvironment to sustain disease progression.