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Frogs evolved terrestrial development multiple times, necessitating mechanisms to avoid ammonia toxicity at early stages. Urea synthesis from ammonia is a key adaptation that reduces water dependence after metamorphosis. We tested for early expression and plasticity of enzymatic mechanisms of ammonia detoxification in three terrestrial-breeding frogs: foam-nest-dwelling larvae of Leptodactylus fragilis (Lf) and arboreal embryos of Hyalinobatrachium fleischmanni (Hf) and Agalychnis callidryas (Ac). Activity of two ornithine-urea cycle (OUC) enzymes, arginase and CPSase, and levels of their products urea and CP in tissues were high in Lf regardless of nest hydration, but reduced in experimental low- vs. high-ammonia environments. High OUC activity in wet and dry nests, comparable to that under experimental high ammonia, suggests terrestrial Lf larvae maintain high capacity for urea excretion regardless of their immediate risk of ammonia toxicity. This may aid survival through unpredictably long waiting periods before rain enables their transition to water. Moderate levels of urea and CP were present in Hf and Ac tissues and enzymatic activities were lower than in Lf. In both species, embryos in drying clutches can hatch and enter the water early, behaviorally avoiding ammonia toxicity. Moreover, glutamine synthetase was active in early stages of all three species, condensing ammonia and glutamate to glutamine as another mechanism of detoxification. Enzyme activity appeared highest in Lf, although substrate and product levels were higher in Ac and Lf. Our results reveal that multiple biochemical mechanisms of ammonia detoxification occur in early life stages of anuran lineages that evolved terrestrial development.

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Climate change is increasing both environmental temperatures and droughts. Many ectotherms respond behaviorally to heat, thereby avoiding damage from extreme temperatures. Within species, thermal tolerance varies with factors such as hydration as well as ontogenetic stage. Many tropical anurans lay terrestrial eggs, relying on environmental moisture for embryonic development. These eggs are vulnerable to dehydration, and embryos of some species can hatch prematurely to escape from drying eggs. Warmer temperatures can accelerate development and thus hatching, but excess heat can kill embryos. Thus, we hypothesize that embryos may show a behavioral thermal tolerance limit, hatching prematurely to avoid potentially lethal warming. If so, because warming and drying are often associated, we hypothesize this limit, measurable as a voluntary thermal maximum, may depend on hydration. We manipulated the hydration of the terrestrial eggs of Agalychnis callidryas, in intact clutches and egg-groups isolated from clutch jelly, then warmed them to assess if embryos hatch early as a behavioral response to high temperatures and whether their thermal tolerance varies with hydration or surrounding structure. We discovered that heating induces hatching; these embryos show a behavioral escape-hatching response that enables them to avoid potentially lethal warming. Hydrated eggs and clutches lost more water and warmed more slowly than dehydrated ones, indicating that hydration buffers embryos from environmental warming via evaporative cooling. Embryos in hydrated clutches tolerated greater warming before hatching and suffered higher mortality, suggesting their behavioral Thermal Safety Margin is small. In contrast, lower thermal tolerance protected dry embryos, and those isolated from clutch jelly, from lethal warming. Heat-induced hatching offers a convenient behavioral assay for the thermal tolerance of terrestrial anuran embryos and the interactive effects of warming and dehydration at an early life stage. This work expands the set of threats against which embryos use hatching in self-defense, creating new opportunities for comparative studies of thermal tolerance as well as integrative studies of self-defense mechanisms at the egg stage.

El cambio climático está aumentando tanto las temperaturas ambientales como las sequías. Muchos ectotermos responden conductualmente al calor, evitando así los daños por temperaturas extremas. Dentro de las especies, la tolerancia térmica varía con factores como la hidratación y la ontogenia. Muchos anuros tropicales depositan huevos terrestres que dependen de la humedad ambiental para el desarrollo embrionario. Estos huevos son vulnerables a la deshidratación y los embriones de algunas especies pueden eclosionar prematuramente para escapar de la desecación de los huevos. Las temperaturas más cálidas pueden acelerar el desarrollo y, por lo tanto, la eclosión, pero el exceso de calor puede matar a los embriones. Por lo tanto, planteamos la hipótesis de que los embriones pueden mostrar un límite de tolerancia térmica conductual, eclosionando prematuramente para evitar un calentamiento potencialmente letal. Si es así, debido a que el calentamiento y la desecación a menudo están asociados, planteamos la hipótesis de que este límite, medible como una tolerancia térmica voluntaria, puede depender de la hidratación. Manipulamos la hidratación de los huevos terrestres de Agalychnis callidryas, en posturas intactas y grupos de huevos aislados de la gelatina de la postura. Luego, los calentamos para evaluar si los embriones eclosionan temprano como respuesta conductual a las altas temperaturas y si su tolerancia térmica varía con la hidratación o la estructura circundante. Descubrimos que el calentamiento induce la eclosión. Estos embriones muestran una respuesta conductual de eclosión de escape que les permite evitar un calentamiento potencialmente letal. Los huevos y las posturas hidratadas perdieron más agua y se calentaron más lentamente que los deshidratados, lo que indica que la hidratación protege a los embriones del calentamiento ambiental a través del enfriamiento por evaporación. Los embriones en posturas hidratadas toleraron un mayor calentamiento antes de la eclosión y sufrieron una mayor mortalidad, lo que sugiere que su margen de seguridad térmica conductual es pequeño. En contraste, la tolerancia térmica más baja protegió a los embriones deshidratados, y a los aislados de la gelatina, del calentamiento letal. La eclosión inducida por calor ofrece un ensayo de comportamiento conveniente para la tolerancia térmica de los embriones terrestres de anuros y los efectos integrados del calentamiento y la deshidratación en una etapa temprana de la vida. Este estudio amplía el conjunto de amenazas contra las cuales los embriones usan la eclosión en defensa propia, creando nuevas oportunidades para estudios comparativos de tolerancia térmica, así como estudios integradores de mecanismos de autodefensa en etapa de huevo.

As mudanças climáticas estão aumentando as temperaturas ambientais e as secas. Muitos ectotermos respondem comportamentalmente ao calor, evitando danos devido a temperaturas extremas. Dentro das espécies, a tolerância térmica varia com fatores como a hidratação e a ontogenia. Muitos anuros tropicais depositam ovos terrestres que dependem da umidade ambiental para o desenvolvimento embrionário. Esses ovos são vulneráveis à desidratação, e os embriões de algumas espécies podem eclodir prematuramente para escapar da dessecação dos ovos. Temperaturas mais altas podem acelerar o desenvolvimento e, portanto, a eclosão, mas o excesso de calor pode matar os embriões. Portanto, propomos a hipótese de que os embriões podem mostrar um limite de tolerância térmica comportamental, eclodindo prematuramente para evitar o aquecimento potencialmente letal. Nesse caso, como o aquecimento e a dessecação são frequentemente associados, propomos a hipótese de que esse limite, mensurável como uma tolerância térmica voluntária, pode depender da hidratação. Manipulamos a hidratação dos ovos terrestres de Agalychnis callidryas, em desovas completas e grupos de ovos isolados da geleia da desova. Depois, aquecemos os ovos para avaliar se os embriões eclodem cedo como uma resposta comportamental a altas temperaturas, e se sua tolerância térmica varia com a hidratação ou a estrutura circundante. Descobrimos que o aquecimento induz a eclosão. Esses embriões mostram uma resposta comportamental de eclosão que lhes permite evitar o aquecimento potencialmente letal. Ovos e desovas hidratadas perderam mais água e se aqueceram mais lentamente que os desidratados, indicando que a hidratação protege os embriões do aquecimento ambiental através do resfriamento por evaporação. Os embriões em desovas hidratadas toleraram maior aquecimento antes da eclosão e sofreram maior mortalidade, sugerindo que sua margem de segurança térmica comportamental é menor. Por outro lado, a menor tolerância térmica protegeu os embriões desidratados e os isolados da geleia, do aquecimento letal. A eclosão induzida pelo calor oferece um teste comportamental conveniente para a estimativa da tolerância térmica de embriões de anuros terrestres e dos efeitos integrados do aquecimento e da desidratação em um estágio inicial da vida. Este estudo expande o conjunto de ameaças contra as quais os embriões usam a eclosão como defesa, criando novas oportunidades para estudos comparativos de tolerância térmica, além de estudos integrativos dos mecanismos de autodefesa no estágio de ovo.

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Terrestrial eggs have evolved repeatedly in tropical anurans exposing embryos to the new threat of dehydration. Red-eyed treefrogs, Agalychnis callidryas, lay eggs on plants over water. Maternally provided water allows shaded eggs in humid sites to develop to hatching without rainfall, but unshaded eggs and those in less humid sites can die from dehydration. Hatching responses of amphibian eggs to dry conditions are known from two lineages with independent origins of terrestrial eggs. Here, we experimentally tested for dehydration-induced early hatching in another lineage (Agalychnis callidryas, Phyllomedusidae), representing a third independent origin of terrestrial eggs. We also investigated how dehydration affected egg and clutch structure, and egg mortality. We collected clutches from a pond in Gamboa, Panama, and randomly allocated them to wet or dry treatments at age 1 day. Embryos hatched earlier from dry clutches than from wet clutches, accelerating hatching by ∼11%. Clutch thickness and egg diameter were affected by dehydration, diverging between treatments over time. Meanwhile, mortality in dry clutches was six-fold higher than in control clutches. With this study, early hatching responses to escape mortality from egg dehydration are now known from three anuran lineages with independent origins of terrestrial eggs, suggesting they may be widespread. Further studies are needed to understand how terrestrial amphibian eggs can respond to, or will be affected by, rapid changes in climate over the next decades.

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Most animals metamorphose, changing morphology, physiology, behavior and ecological interactions. Size- and habitat-dependent mortality risk is thought to affect the evolution and plastic expression of metamorphic timing, and high predation during the morphological transition is posited as a critical selective force shaping complex life cycles. Nonetheless, empirical data on how risk changes across metamorphosis and stage-specific habitats, or how that varies with size, are rare. We examined predator-prey interactions of red-eyed treefrogs, Agalychnis callidryas, with an aquatic predator (giant water bug, Belostoma) and a semi-terrestrial predator (fishing spider, Thaumasia) across metamorphosis. We manipulated tadpole density to generate variation in metamorph size and conducted predation trials at multiple developmental stages. We quantified how frog behavior (activity) changes across metamorphic development, habitats, and predator presence or absence. In aquatic trials with water bugs, frog mortality increased with forelimb emergence, as hypothesized. In semi-terrestrial trials, contrary to predictions, predation by spiders increased, not decreased, with tail resorption. In neither case did frog size affect mortality. Frogs reduced activity upon forelimb emergence in the water, and further with emergence into air, then increased activity with tail resorption. Longer-tailed metamorphs were captured more often in spider attacks, but attacked less, as most attacks followed prey movements. Metamorphs behaviorally compensated for poor escape performance more effectively on land than in water, thus emergence timing may critically affect mortality. The developmental timing of the ecological transition between environments that select for different larval and juvenile phenotypes is an important, neglected variable in studies of complex life cycles.

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Community ecology aims to understand how species interactions shape species diversity and abundance. Although less studied than predatory or competitive interactions, facilitative interactions can be important in communities associated with ephemeral microhabitats. Successful recruitment from these habitats requires species to rapidly colonize, develop, and disperse during brief periods of habitat suitability. Interactions between organisms, including processing chain interactions whereby initial consumers alter resources in ways that improve their quality for subsequent consumers, could aid these processes. The terrestrial egg masses of red-eyed treefrogs (Agalychnis callidryas) are a resource for predatory wasps (Agelaia spp., Polybia rejecta) and a microhabitat and resource for saprovoric and pathogenic fungi and saprovoric flies (Megaselia spp., Psychoda savaiiensis). We investigate how interactions with wasps might facilitate fly and fungal colonization of and survival on frog egg masses. Our results indicate that wasps facilitate fungal colonization, whereas flies appear not to, and that both wasps and fungi generate frog egg carrion that attracts saprovoric flies to oviposit and increases the survival of fly larvae. While studies of colonization order often focus on inhibition by early colonizers of subsequent arrivals, this study demonstrates how early colonizers can facilitate the establishment of later ones, by modifying resources in ways that promote the location of and survival in habitat patches. This research draws attention to the diversity of interactions that can occur within ephemeral communities and emphasizes the role that positive interactions may play. Processing chain interactions may be a generally important mechanism increasing the diversity of local communities, including very ephemeral ones.

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The physiological role of the embryonic external gills in anurans is equivocal. In some species, diffusion alone is clearly sufficient to supply oxygen throughout the embryonic period. In others, morphological elaboration and environmental regulation of the external gills suggest functional importance. Since oxygen stress is a common trigger of hatching, I examined the relationships among hatching timing, oxygen stress, and external gill loss. I worked with the red-eyed tree frog, Agalychnis callidryas, a species with arboreal eggs and aquatic tadpoles in which gill regression is associated with hatching, and hatching timing affects posthatching survival with aquatic predators. Both exposure to a hypoxic gas mixture and submergence in water, a natural context in which hypoxic stress can occur, induced early hatching. Exposure to hyperoxic gas mixtures induced regression of external gills, and subsequent exposure to air induced early hatching. Prostaglandin-induced external gill regression also induced hatching, and this effect was partially ameliorated by exposure to hyperoxic gas. Together, these results suggest that external gills enhance the oxygen uptake of embryos and are necessary to extend embryonic development past the onset of hatching competence.

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